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WELLS'S SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



GRAMMAR jj_ 



OF THE 



ENGLISH L ANGUAGE; 



FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 

M 

BY W. H.WELLS, M. A., 

Principal of the Putnam Free School, Newburyport, and President of the Essex 
County Teachers' Association. 



-Sfjrt^mti) &i>ousautr. 



BOSTON: 

PUBLISHED BY JOHN P. JEWETT & CO. 

ANDOVER : WILLIAM H. WARDWELL. 
1848. 



^£- 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1846, 

Bt Allen, Moeeill & Waedvtell, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 



In xca. 



PREFACE. 



A brief notice of the circumstances under which the fol 
lowing work has been written, will afford a general idea of 
its prominent characteristics. 

About nine years since, while engaged in the instruction 
of a class of teachers, the author commenced a critical exam- 
ination of several grammatical works, in connection with a 
systematic course of English reading. All the important 
principles of the language were familiarly discussed before 
the class. The definitions and rules of different grammarians 
were carefully compared with each other, and tested by con- 
stant reference to the usage of standard writers. In conduct- 
ing the exercises of successive classes of teachers, a similar 
course has been repeated from year to year till the present 
time. The result of these labors is embodied in the work 
now offered to the public* 

English Grammar is too often taught as if it were merely 
the art of parsing. It is hoped that instructors will find the 
present work adapted to teach " the art of speaking and 
writing" Copious exercises and illustrations have been 
introduced, and the learner is required to make constant 
application of the principles as he advances. 

*In pursuing this investigation, the author has collected between three 
and four hundred different treatises on English Grammar, and noted 
above eighteen thousand illustrative examples in the productions of the 
best English writers. 



IV PREFACE. 

The essay on Oral Instruction was prepared at the request 
of Henry Barnard, Esq., Commissioner of Public Schools for 
the State of Rhode Island, and first appeared as one of his 
series of Educational Tracts. 

The author's acknowledgments are due to Mr. J. M, 
Ordway, of Lowell, for important assistance in the preparation 
of the work ; and to several other teachers and friends of 
education, for valuable suggestions during its progress through 
the press. W. H. W. 

Phillips Academy, 1846. 



ADVERTISEMENT TO THE NEW STEREOTYPE EDITION. 



The publishers of the School Grammar having found it 
necessary to prepare new sets of stereotype plates for the 
work, the author has availed himself of the opportunity to 
introduce such improvements as have been suggested by the 
experience of practical teachers. 

The chapter on Analysis has been revised and enlarged 
with great care, and will be found to embody all the most 
important principles on this subject which are contained in 
the works of De Sacy, Andrews and Stoddard, Kiihner, 
Crosby, and Crane. It is gratifying to observe that the 
attention of teachers is now so generally directed to this 
important mode of investigating the structure of our language, 
in connection with the ordinary exercises of etymological and 
syntactical parsing. 

The work has been divided into sections for convenience 
of reference, and the different sizes of type will be found to 
be more distinct than in previous editions. 

Andover, Oct., 1847. 



CATALOGUE OF ENGLISH GRAM1AES. 



[The catalogue here given embraces only those Grammars to which 
special reference is made in the pages of the following work. ] 

Adams, Rev. Charles, A. M., 12mo, Boston; 1838. 

Adams, Daniel, 3d ed. 12mo, Montpelier, Vt. ; 1814. 

Ainsworth, Luther, 12mo, Providence ; 1837. 

Alden, Abner, A. M., 12mo, Boston; 1811. 

Alexander, Caleb, A. M., 10th ed., 12mo, Keene, N. H. ; 1814. 

Alexander, Samuel, 4th ed., 18mo, London ; 1832. 

Allen, Rev. William, 2d ed., 12mo, London ; 1824. 

Allen and Corawell, 3d ed., 18mo, London; 1841. 

Angell, Oliver, A. M., 12mo, Providence ; 1830. 

Angus, William, M. A., 2d ed., 12mo, Glasgow; 1807. 

Arnold, T. K., M. A, 2d ed., 12mo, London; 1841. 

Ish, John, LL. D., newed., 18mo, London; 1785. 

r adgley, Jonathan, 12mo, Utica; 1845. 
Atich, William S., 12mo, Boston; 1839. 

Baldwin, Edward, 2d ed., 18mo, London; 1824. 

Barnard, F. A. P., A. M., 12mo, New York ; 1836. 
Barrett, John, 2d ed., 18mo, Boston; 1819. 
Barrett, Solomon, 10th ed., 18mo, Utica; 1845. 
Barre, Alexander, 9th ed,, 18mo, Edinburgh ; 1800. 
Beall, Alexander, 12mo, Cincinnati; 1841. 
Bell, John, 12mo, Glasgow; 1769. 
Bicknell, Alexander, 12mo, London ; 1790. 
Bingham, Caleb, A. M., 12th ed., 24mo, Boston; 1801. 
Blair, Rev. David, 15th ed., 18mo, London ; 1826. 
Booth, David, 12mo, London ; 1837. 
Brace, Joab, 18mo, Philadelphia; 1839. 
Brightland, John, 5th ed., 12mo, London ; 1728. 
British Grammar, 12mo, London and Boston ; 1784. 
Brittain, Rev. Lewis, 2d ed., London : 1790 
Brown, Goold, stereotype ed., 12mo, New York: 1846. 
Buchanan, James, 12mo, London ; 1767. — Philadelphia; 1792. 
Bucke, Charles, 18mo, London ; 1829. 
Bullions, Peter, D. D., 15th ed., 12mo, New York; 1846. 
Burn, John, 7th ed., 18mo, Glasgow; 1799. 
Burr, Jonathan, A. M. 3d ed., 18mo, Boston ; 1818. 
Butler, Noble, A. M., 12mo, Louisville, Ky. ; 1845. 
Cardell, William S., 3d ed., 18mo, Hartford ; 1827. 
Chapin, Joel, 12mo ; Springfield ; 1842. 
Churchill, T. O., 12mo, London; 1823. 
Coar, Thomas, 12mo, London; 1796. 
Cobb, E., 2d ed., 12mo, Boston; 1821. 

Cobbett, William, 12mo, London; 1818. — New York: 1833. 
1* 



VI LIST OF AUTHORS. 

Cochran, Peter, A. B., 18mo, Boston ; 1802. 

Comly, John, 15th ed., 18mo, Philadelphia ; 1838. 

Connel, Robert, 2d ed., 18mo, Glasgow; 1834. 

Connon, C. W., M. A., 12mo, Edinburgh; 1845. 

Cooper, J. G., 12mo, Philadelphia; 1831. 

Coot, C., LL. D., 8vo, London; 1788. 

Cornell, William M , 4to, Boston ; 1840. 

Crane, George, 12mo, London; 1843. 

Crombie, Alexander, LL. D., E. R. S., 4th ed., 8vo, London ; 1836. 

Cutler, Andrew, 12mo, Plainfield, Ct. ; 1841. 

Dalton, John, 2d ed., 12mo, London ; 1803. 

Davenport, B., 18mo, Wilmington, Del.; 1830. 

Davis, Pardon, 12mo, Philadelphia; 1845. 

Day, Parsons E., 2d ed., 18mo, Ithaca, N Y. ; 1844. 

Dearborn, Benjamin, 12mo, Boston ; 1795. 

Del Mar, E., 12mo, London ; 1842. 

Dilworth, Thomas, 26th ed., 12mo, London ; 1764. 

D'Orsey, Alexander J. D., 12mo, Edinburgh ; 1842. 

Earl, Mary, 18mo, Boston; 1816. 

Elmore, D.W., A. M., 18mo, Troy, N. Y. ; 1830. 

Elphinston, James, 12mo, London; 1766. 

Emmons, S. B., 12mo, Boston; 1832. 

Everest, Cornelius B., 12mo, Norwich ; 1835. 

Earnum, Caleb, A. M., 2d ed., 12mo. Boston; 1843. 

Earro, D., 12mo, London; 1754. 

Eelch, W., 12mo, Boston ; 1837. 

Felton, O. C, 2d ed., 12mo, Salem; 1843. 

Eenning, D., 12mo, London ; 1771. 

Fisher, A., 28th ed., 12mo, London; 1795. 

Fletcher, Levi, 12mo, Philadelphia ; 1834. 

Flint, John, 18mo, New York; 1837. 

Flower, M. and W. B., 18mo, London; 1844. 

Eowle, William B., 12mo, Boston ; 1842. 

Erazee, Rev. Bradford, 12mo, Philadelphia; 1844. 

French. D'Arcy A., 12mo, Baltimore; 1831. 

Frost, John, A". M., 12mo, Philadelphia ; 1842. 

Fuller, Allen, 12mo, Plymouth, Mass. ; 1822. 

Gilbert, E., 18mo, New York ; 1835. 

Giles, Rev. T. A., M. A., 2d ed., 12mo, London; 1838. 

Goldsbury, John, A. M., 12mo, Boston ; 1842. 

Goodenow, S. B., 2d ed., 12mo, Boston ; 1843. 

Graham, G. E., 12mo, London ; 1843. 

Grant, John, A. M., 12mo, London ; 1813. 

Granville, George, 12mo, London ; 1827. 

Green, R. W, 5th ed., 18mo, Philadelphia ; 1834. 

Greenleaf, J., 20th ed., 4to, New York ; 1837. 

Greenwood, James, 2d ed., 12mo, London; 1722. 

Gurnev, David, A. M., 2d ed., 18mo, Boston ; 1808. 

Hall, Rev. S. R,,2d ed., 12mo, Springfield; 1833. 

Hallock, Edward J., 12mo, Andover ; 1842. 

Hamlin, L. E., stereotype ed., 12mo, New York; 1832. 

Hart, John S , A. M./l2mo, Philadelphia; 1845. 

Hazen, Edward, A. M, 12mo, New York ; 1842. 



LIST OF AUTHORS. Vll 

Hazlitt, fm, 18mo, London; 1810. 

Hendrick, J. L v A. M., 18mo, Syracuse ; 1844. 

Higginson, Eev. T. E., 12mo, Dublin 5 1803. 

Hiley, Richard, 3d ed., 12mo, London ; 1840. 

Hodgson, Rev. Isaac, 1 2mo, London ; 1770. 

Hornsey, John, 6th ed., 12mo, York, England ; 1816. 

Hort, W. Jillard, 18mo, London ; 1822. 

Howe, S. L., 18mo, Lancaster, Ohio ; 1838. 

Hull, J. H., 4th ed., 12mo, Boston; 1828. 

Ingersoll, C. M., 12mo, Philadelphia ; 1835. 

Jaudon, D., 4th ed., 18mo, Philadelphia; 1828. 

Jenkins, Azariah, 12mo, Rochester, N. Y. ; 1835. 

Joel, Thomas, 12mo, London; 1775. 

Johnson, Samuel, LL. D., (prefixed to Dictionary), 4to, London; 1775. 

Johnson, Ben, 8vo, London ; 1640. — 1816. 

Jones, Joshua, 18mo, Philadelphia; 1841. 

Judson, Adoniram, A. B., 12mo, Boston; 1808. 

Kennion, Charlotte, 12mo,London; 1842. 

King, Walter W., 18mo, London ; 1841. 

Kirkham, Samuel, 36th ed., 12mo, Rochester, N. Y.; 1834. 

Latham, R. G., A. M., 12mo, London ; 1843. 

Lennie, William, 13th ed., 18mo, Edinburgh; 1831. 

Lewis, William G., 18mo, London; 1821. 

Lindsay, Rev. John, A. M., 18mo, London; 1842. 

Locke, John, M. D., 18mo, Cincinnati; 1827. 

Lovechild, Mrs., 40th ed., 18mo, London ; 1842. 

Lowth, Robert, LL. D., 18mo, London ; 1763. — Cambridge, U. S. ; 1838. 

Lynde, John, 18mo, Woodstock, Yt. ; 1821. 

Maittaire, Michael, 12mo, London; 1712. 

Marcet, Mrs., 7th ed., 18mo, London; 1843. 

Martin, Benjamin, 12mo, London; 1754. 

M'Cready, F., 12mo, Philadelphia; 1820. 

M'Culloch, J. M., D. D., 7th ed., 18mo, Edinburgh; 1841. 

Meilan, Mark Anthony, 12mo, London; 1803. 

Menye, J., 12mo, New York ; 1785. 

Milligan, Rev. George, 2d ed., 18mo, Edinburgh; 1839. 

Morgan, Jonathan, A. B., 12mo, Hallowell, Me.; 1814. 

Morely, Charles, A. B., 18mo, Hartford ; 1836. 

Murray, Lindley, 8vo, Roldgate, England; 1795. — New York; 1814. 

Nutting, Rufus, A. M.,3d ed., 12mo, Montpelier, Yt; 1826. 

Oliver, Edward, D. D., 12mo, London; 1807. 

Oliver, Samuel, 8vo, London ; 1825. 

Parker and Eox, 5th ed., 12mo, Boston ; 1837. 

Parkhurst, John L., 18mo, Andover; 1838. 

Peirce, Oliver B., 12mo, New York ; 1839. 

Perley, Daniel, M. D., 18mo, Andover ; 1834. 

Perry, William, (prefixed to Dictionary), 12mo, Edinburgh ; 1801. 

Picket, A. and J. W., 12mo, Cincinnati ; 1837. 

Pinnock, W., 12mo, London; 1829. 

Pond's Murray, 6th ed., 12mo, Worcester; 1835. 

Powers, Daniel, A. M., 12mo, West Brookfield, Mass.; 1845. 

Priestley, Joseph, LL. D-, 3d ed., 18mo, London; 1772. 

3 ue, Hugh A., 18mo, Philadelphia; 1841. 



Vlll LIST OF AUTHORS. 

Pullen. P. H., 2d ed., 12mo, London; 1822. 

Putnam, J. M., 18mo, Concord, N. H.; 1831. 

Reed, Caleb, A. M., 18mo, Boston; 182K 

Bobbins, Manasseh, 12tno, Providence ; 1826. 

Ross, Robert, 7th ed., 1 2mo, Hartford ; 1782. 

Russell, J., D. D., 10th ed., 18mo, London; 1842. 

Russell, William E., 2d ed., 18mo, Hartford; 1819. 

Sanborn, D. H., 12mo, Concord,N. H.; 1836. 

Simmonite, W. J., 12mo, London ; 1841. 

Skillern, R. S., A. M., 2d ed., 12mo, Gloucester, England ; 1808. 

Smart, B. H., 12mo, London; 1841. 

Smetham, Thomas, 12mo, London; 1774. 

Smith, Eli, 18m©, Philadelphia ; 1812. 

Smith, Peter, A. M., 18mo, Edinburgh; 1826. 

Smith, R. C, stereotype ed., 12mo, Philadelphia; 1845. 

Snyder, W., 12mo, Winchester; 1834. 

Spear, M. P., 12mo, Boston; 1845. 

Staniford, Daniel, A. M., 2d ed., 18mo, Boston ; 1815. 

Stearns, George, 4to, Boston ; 1843. 

St. Quentin, D., A. M., 12mo, London; 1812. 

Story, Joshua, 3d ed., 12mo, Newcastle, England ; 1783. 

SutcJiffe, Joseph, A. M., 2d ed., 12mo, London; 1815. 

Swett, J., A. M., 2d ed., 12mo, Claremont, N. H.; 1844. 

Ticken, William, 12mo, London; 1806. 

Ticknor, Elisha, A. M., 3d ed., 18mo, Boston; 1794. 

Todd, Lewis C, 2d ed., 18mo,Eredonia, N. Y.; 1827. 

Trinder, William M., 12mo, London; 1781. 

TJssher, G Neville, 12mo, London; 1787. — Exeter, N. H. ; 1804. 

Waldo, John, 18mo, Philadelphia; 1814. 

Walker, John, 12mo, London; 1805. 

Wallis, John. D. D., (in Latin), 6th ed., 8vo, London ; 1765. 

Ward, H., 12mo, Whitehaven, England; 1777. 

Ward, John, LL. D., 12mo, London ; 1758. 

Ward, William, M. A., 3d ed., 12mo, Northampton, England; 1771. 

Webber, Samuel, 12mo, Cambridge, Mass.; 1832. 

Webster, Noah, LL. D., 12mo, New Haven; 1831. 

Weld, A. H., M. A., 12mo, Portland ; 1846. 

Whiting, Joseph, A. M., 12mo, Detroit; 1845. 

Wilbur, Josiah, 2d ed., 12mo, Bellows Palis ; 1822. 

Wilcox, A. P., 18mo, New Haven; 1828. 

Willard, Samuel, 18mo, Greenfield, Mass ; 1816. 

Wilson, George, 18mo, London; 1777. 

Wilson, J. P., D. D., 8vo, Philadelphia; 1817. 

Worcester, Samuel, 18mo, Gloucester, Mass. ; 1827. 

Wright, Joseph W., C. E., 12mo, New York; 1838. 



COLLATERAL AUTHORITIES. 



Adam, Alexander, LL. D. Rudiments of Latin and English Grammar, 
Edinburgh; 1772.— Boston ; 1812. 

Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar. Boston; 1845. 

Bachi, Pietro. Grammar of the Italian Language. Boston; 1838. 

Barber, Jonathan. Grammar pf Elocution. New Haven ; 1830. 

Beattie, James, LL. D. Theory of Language. London; 1783. — Phila- 
delphia; 1809. 

Blair, Hugh, D. D. Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Letters. London ; 
1783. — Philadelphia; 1829. 

Bolmar's edition of Levizac's French Grammar. Philadelphia; 1841. 

Brande, W. T. Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art. London and 
New York; 1843. 

Bugard, B. F. Complete Grammar of the French Language. Boston ; 
1843. 

Buttmann, Philip. Larger Greek Grammar. Translated by Edward 
Robinson. Andover ; 1833. 

Campbell, George, D. D. Philosophy of Rhetoric. London; 1776. — 
New York; 1834. 

Comstock, Andrew, M. D. System of Elocution. Philadelphia; 1845. 

Crosby, Alpheus. Grammar of the Greek Language. Boston; 1844. 

Day, H. N. Art of Elocution. New Haven; 1844. . , 

De Sacy, A. J. Sylvestre. Principles of General Grammar ; translated 
from the French, by Fosdick. Andover; 1834. 

Edinburgh Encyclopaedia. Edinburgh; 1830. 

Enfield, William, A. M. New Pronouncing Dictionary. London ; 1807. 

Fulton and Knight. Pronouncing and Explanatory Dictionary. Edin- 
burgh; 1807. 

Harris, James. Hermes, or a Philosophical Inquiry concerning Univer- 
sal Grammar. London; 1751. — 1806. 

Hicks, George, D. D. Thesaurus. Oxford; 1705. 

Jameson, R. S. Dictionary of the English Language. London ; 1827. 

Jamieson, Alexander. Grammar of Rhetoric and Polite Literature. 
London; 1818. — New Haven ; 1820. 

Johnson, Samuel, LL. D. Dictionary of the English Language. Dub- 
lin ; 1775. 

Jones, Stephen. General Pronouncing and Explanatory Dictionary of 
the English Language. London; 1798. 

Kenrick, William, LL. D. New Dictionary of the English Language. 
London ; 1773. 

Knowles, James. Pronouncing and Explanatory Dictionary of the 
English Language. London; 1835. 

Kiihner, Raphael. Larger Greek Grammar. Translated by Edwards 
and Taylor. Andover; 1844. 



X COLLATERAL AUTHORITIES. 

Latham, E. G., A. M. The English Language. London; 1841. 

Mandeville, Henry. Elements of Beading and Oratory. Utica, N. Y • 
1845. 

McElligott, James N. Manual, Analytical and Synthetical, of Orthog- 
raphy and Definitions. New York ; 1845. 

Murdoch, J. E. and William Russell. Orthophony ; or Yocal Culture 
in Elocution. Boston; 1845. 

Nares, Robert, B. D. Elements of Orthoepy. London; 1784. 

Page, David P. Normal Chart of the Elementary Sounds of the English 
Language. Syracuse, N. Y. ; 1846. 

Perry, William. Royal Standard English Dictionary. Edinburgh: 
1793. 

Pickbourn, James. Dissertation on the English verb. London ; 1 789. 

Rees, Abraham, D. D. Cyclopaedia. London; 1820. — Philadelphia; 
1822. 

Rush, James, M. D. Philosophy of the Human Voice. Philadelphia ; 
1833. 

Russell, William. Lessons in Enunciation. Boston; 1841. 

Sheridan, Thomas, A. M. General Dictionary of the English Language. 
London; 1797. 

Smart, B. H. Principles of Pronunciation, and Pronouncing Diction- 
ary of the English Language. London ; 1846. 

Walker, William, B. D. Treatise of English Particles. London; 1653. 

Walker, John. Critical Pronouncing Dictionary. Dublin ; 1794. 

Webster, Noah, LL. D. American Dictionary of the English Language. 
New Haven; 1841. 

Worcester, J. E. Universal and Critical Dictionary of the English Lan- 
guage. Boston; 1846. 

Wright, Albert D. Analytical Orthography. New York ; 1845. 



JO TEACHERS. 

That portion of the work which is printed in the largest type, is de- 
signed for beginners ; and the corresponding questions are printed in 
Roman characters. That which is printed in type of the second size, is 
designed for pupils more advanced ; and the corresponding questions are 
in Italics. That which is printed in the smallest type, is designed for 
occasional reference. 

The Exercises which occur in different portions of the work are intend- 
ed to be modified or extended at the discretion of teachers. 



ORAL INSTRUCTION 



IN 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



[The following outline of Oral Instruction is designed to furnish 
practical suggestions to teachers engaged in imparting a knowledge of 
the rudiments of English Grammar. 

By adopting a familiar, inductive method of presenting this subject, it 
may be rendered highly attractive to young learners ; and the practice 
of introducing illustrative exercises in composition, will be found to 
afford great assistance to pupils in comprehending and retaining the 
principles presented, while it also leads them to cultivate the habit of 
expressing their thoughts with facility and accuracy. 

It is not expected that teachers will confine themselves strictly to any 
particular system ; but it is hoped that the general features of the sketch 
here presented will be found to meet the wants of all classes of 
beginners.] 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 

§ 1. The classification of words may be introduced by referring 
to the different kinds of trees ; to the different kinds of animals ; 
or to any other collection of objects that admit of a regular division 
into distinct classes. Thus, when we go into a forest, we find that 
the number of trees about us is greater than we can estimate. 
But we soon observe that a portion of them have certain striking 
resemblances, while they differ essentially from all the rest. We 
also observe that others, which differ materially from these, have 
similar resemblances to one another, And by extending our 



12 ORAL INSTRUCTION. 

observation, we find that this countless multitude of trees all belong 
to a very few simple classes, which are easily distinguished from 
each other. Those of one class we associate together, and call 
them Oak trees ; those of another class we call Pine trees ; and in 
this manner we proceed with all the different kinds. 

Just so it is with the words of our language. Though their num- 
ber is about eighty thousand, yet we find, on a careful examination, 
that they all belong to less than a dozen different classes, called 
Parts of Speech ; so that we have only to learn the character of 
these divisions, and we shall be able to tell the class to which any 
word in the language belongs. 

By some such introductory illustration, the curiosity of a class of 
beginners may be easily excited, and they will thus be prepared to 
enter with eagerness upon the labor of learning to distinguish the 
different parts of speech. 

The teacher should lead his pupils to take an active part in these 
lessons from the beginning ; not only by proposing frequent ques- 
tions for them to answer, but also by encouraging them to ask such 
questions as their own curiosity may suggest. 



THE NOUN. 

§ 2. Having prepared the way for the consideration of words, the 
teacher next requests his pupils to mention the names of any objects 
that occur to them. As they proceed to give the words book, desk, 
inkstand, etc., the teacher writes them in a column on the black- 
board. 

The teacher now asks a variety of questions, similar to the fol- 
lowing : — Are all words names ? Can you mention any words 
that are not names ? Are good and bad, names ? Why not ? Can 
you think of any object that has not a name ? Do any objects that 
you cannot see or touch have names ? Is wise a name ? Is wis- 
dom ? Virtue ? Virtuous ? Knowledge ? 

After these questions have been disposed of, the pupils are in- 
formed that the names of all objects, whether material or immate- 
rial, are called Nouns ; and the teacher proceeds at the same time 
to write this title over the column of names on the board. 



ORAL INSTRUCTION. 13 

One or more sentences are now placed in the hands of the pupils, 
or written on the board ; and each member of the class proceeds to 
select all the nouns, and write them in a column on a slate or piece 
of paper. The teacher should commence with sentences of the 
simplest construction, and afterwards introduce more difficult forms 
of expression as the learners advance. 

Model L* 

The earth is a large globe or ball. — Virtue is better than riches. 

Nouns. 
Earth 
Globe 
Ball 

Virtue 
Riches 

Exercises of this description should be continued till the pupils 
are able to point out the nouns of any common sentence with 
readiness. 

The teacher next writes several nouns on the black-board, and 
calls on the class to construct one or more sentences embracing the 
words which he has placed before them. 

Model n. 

Sun, bird, idleness, night. 

The hawk is a bird of prey. — Idleness often leads to vice. — The sun 
shines by day, and the moon by night. 

After going through with several exercises of this kind, the pu- 
pils may be required to construct a variety of sentences, and write 
the letter n over all the nouns embraced in them. 

Model m.t 

n n n n n 

In winter the ponds and rivers are generally covered with ice. — Rus- 
n n , 

sia is the largest country in Europe. 

* See Frazee'-s Grammar. f See Greenleaf s Grammar. 

2 



14 ORAL INSTRUCTION. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

§ 3. When the pupils have become sufficiently acquainted with 
the nature of nouns, they may be introduced to the class of Adjec- 
tives in a similar manner. The teacher directs the attention of the 
pupils to a book, and asks if they can mention any words that ex- 
press its character or quality. To this they will readily answer, that 
it is a good book, a large book, an interesting book, etc. The teach- 
er then calls on them to name as many words as they can, that ex- 
press the qualities of objects. As they proceed to enumerate words 
of this class, the teacher writes them in a column on the board as 
before. 

Such expressions as " These books," " A wise man," " Ten days," 
are next written on the board ; and the learners are requested to 
point out the words which serve to define or limit the nouns, but do 
not strictly qualify them. After this is done, they proceed to men- 
tion others of the same character, which are written under the 
column of qualifying words already commenced. It is now time to 
inform them that all words which are used to qualify or define 
nouns, belong to the class called Adjectives ; and this title is accord- 
ingly placed at the head of the column of words on the board. 

The pupils may also be told in this connection, that the words a 
or an and the are distinguished from other definitives by the title 
of Articles. 

Simple sentences are again placed before the pupils, and they are 
required to select all the adjectives, writing them in a column as 
before. They should also distinguish the articles, by underlining 
them in the column. 

Model IV. 

Great men are not always wise. — The climate of Egypt is hot in summer } 
but delightful in winter. 

Adjectives. 
Great 
Wise 
The 

Hot 
Delightful 

Other sentences are now given to the pupils, from which they 



ORAL INSTRUCTION. 15 

select the nouns and adjectives, writing them in separate columns, 
and distinguishing the articles as in the previous exercise. 

Model V. 

There are very few plants that will grow in all countries. — Ivory is a hard, 
solid, and firm substance, of a white color. 

Nouns. Adjectives. 
Plants Few 

Countries All 

Ivory A 

Substance „ , 

Co,or Solid 

Firm 
A 

White 

The teacher next writes a number of adjectives on the board, 
and the pupils proceed as before to form the sentences which em- 
brace them. 

Model VI. 
Diligent, cold, warm, sweet. 

Charles is a diligent scholar. — In cold weather we protect ourselves 
by the use of warm clothing. — The rose is sweet, but it is surrounded 
with thorns. 

After this, the pupils write sentences containing adjectives of 
their own selection. In exercises of this character, the learners 
should distinguish, by their several abbreviations, all the parts of 
speech to which they have attended. 

Model VII. 

n ar adj n adj n ar 

Copper is a very useful metal, which is found in almost all parts of the 
n ar adj n adj n 

world. It is of a red color, and may be drawn out into fine wire, or 

adj n 
beaten into thin leaves. 



THE VEBJB. 

§ 4. This part of speech may be introduced in a manner similar 
to that exhibited in the following dialogue : — 



16 ORAL INSTRUCTION. 

Teacher. What part of speech is horse ? 
Pupil. A noun. 
T. Why? • 
P. Because it is a name, 

T. Can you think of any words that tell what the horse does f 
P. Runs, walks, etc. 
T. Are runs and walks nouns ? 
P. They are not. 

T. Why not ? « 

P. Because they are not names. 
T. Are they adjectives f 
P. They are not. 
T. Why not? 

P. Because they do not qualify or define any thing. 
T. Will you name as many words as you can recollect, that tell 
what any thing does, or express some kind of action ? 
P. Speak, read, study, sing, play, etc. 

These words are written in a column on the board, after which 
the dialogue is continued: — 

T. In the sentence, " The sea is calm," does the word is express 
any degree of action ? 

P. It does not. 

T. Does it express the being or existence of any thing ? 

P. It does. 

T. Can you name any other words that are used to express the 
being or existence of objects ? 

P. Am, was, live, etc. 

These words are placed under the column already commenced 
on the board, and the pupils are informed that all words which ex- 
press action, and those which express being or existence, are called 
Verbs. 

A number of sentences are next placed before the pupils, from 
which they select all the verbs, writing them by themselves as in 
previous exercises. 

Model VHI. 
Birds fly in the air. — - The earth shook and trembled. — Boston is the 



ORAL INSTRUCTION. 17 

capital of Massachusetts. — I wrote a letter to my friend last week, and re* 
ceived an answer this morning. 

Verbs. 

Fly 

Shook „ * 

Trembled 

Is 

Wrote 

Received 

Other sentences are now given to the learners, from which they 
select all the nouns, adjectives, and verbs ; writing them in separate 
columns, and distinguishing the articles. 

m Model IX. 

He came in the morning, and„ went away at night, — Truth never fears 
examination. — Venus is 'the brightest of all the planets. It is sometimes 
visible at mid-day. 



Nouns. 


Adjectives. 


Verbs. 


Morning 


The 


Came 


Night 
Truth 


The 


Went 
Fears 


Examination 


Brightest 


Is 


Yenus 


All 


Is 


Planets 


The 




Mid- day 


\T ic*i K I r\ 





Several verbs are next placed before the learners, and they are 
required to form sentences which include them. See Models II. 
and VI. 

After this, the pupils write sentences containing several verbs of 
their own choice; and distinguish all the verbs, adjectives, and 
nouns. 

Model X. 

ar nar n v n v n 

In the spring the farmer ploughs his ground and sows his seed ; in 
ar n n v n ar n 

the summer and autumn he gathers his harvest; and in the winter he 

v n v n 

cuts his wood and threshes his grain. 

The teacher should make frequent suggestions and explanations 
during these exercises. It is highly important that learners become 

2* 



18 ORAL INSTRUCTION, 

thoroughly acquainted with the nature of verbs, before advancing 
to consider the other parts of speech. 



THE PEONOUN. 

§ 5. Teacher. In the sentence, " John is diligent, and he will 
improve," for what name does the word he stand ? 

Pupil. John. 

T. Can you mention any other names for which lie is sometimes 
used? 

P. George, Charles, man, hoy, etc. 

T. For what nouns does she stand ? 

P. Jane, Susan, girl, woman, etc. 

T. What words besides he and she are used in the place of 
nouns ? 

P. Him, her, I, who, etc. 

These words are written on the board, under the title of Pro- 
nouns ; and the pupils are informed that this term applies to all 
words which are used to supply the place of nouns. 

Sentences are now placed before the learners, from which they 
select all the pronouns, writing them in a column by themselves. 
See Models I. and IV. 

Other sentences are also given them, from which they select all 
the nouns, adjectives, verbs, and pronouns, writing them in columns 
as before. See Models V. and IX. 

After this, the teacher writes several pronouns on the board, and 
the pupils form sentences embracing them. See Models II. and VI. 

They then write sentences including a number of pronouns of 
their own choice. 

Model XI. 

ar n v ar n pro v 

When the wind blows violently among the trees, they bend, and almost 
v pro n v " adj pro y ar 

break. Though their roots are very strong, they sometimes yield to the 
n ar n v ar n 

force of the wind, and fall to the ground. 

In this manner the pupils secure by frequent repetition what 



ORAL INSTRUCTION. 19 

they have before learned, and also cultivate habits of careful com- 
parison and discrimination, by examining the different parts of 
speech in connection. 



THE ADVERB. 

§ 6. Teacher, In the sentence, " The horse runs very rapidly," 
what word tells how the horse runs ? 

Pupil. Rapidly. 

T. What word, then, does rapidly modify ? 

P. Runs. 

T. What part of speech is runs ? 

P. A verb. 

T. What word in the sentence modifies rapidly ? 

P. Very. 

T. In the sentence, " He is an exceedingly diligent scholar," 
what word modifies diligent f 

P. Exceedingly. 

T. What part of speech is diligent f 

P. An adjective. 

T. The words rapidly, exceedingly, and very, all belong to the 
same class, and are called Adverbs. Rapidly modifies a verb ; ex- 
ceedingly modifies an adjective ; and very modifies an adverb. Re- 
member, then, that all words which modify verbs, adjectives, or ad- 
verbs, belong to the class of Adverbs. 

T. Can you think of any other words that are used in this 
manner ? 

P. Wisely, here, now, when, etc. 

These words are written in another column on the board, and 
headed Adverbs. When this is done, sentences are again placed 
before the pupils, from which they select all the adverbs, (Models 
I. and IV. ) and others from which they select all the nouns, adjec- 
tives, verbs, pronouns, and adverbs. See Models V. and IX. 

The teacher next writes a number of adverbs on the board, and 
the learners form sentences which embrace them. See Models n. 
and VI. 



?0 ORAL INSTRUCTION. 

After this, they construct sentences containing adverbs selected 
by themselves, and distinguish all the parts of speech to which they 
have attended, as in former exercises. See Models VII, X, and 



1 THE PREPOSITION. 

§ 7. Teacher. When I say, " My hand is over the table," what 
word expresses the relation of my hand to the table ? 

Pupil. Over. 

T. When I say, " My hand is under the table," what word then 
expresses the relation between my hand and the table ? 

P. Under. 

T. Mention any other words that express the relation of differ- 
ent things to each other. 

P. On, between, in, above, etc. 

These words are written in a column on the board, and headed 
Prepositions. The pupils are told at the same time, that every word 
which is used to express the relation of one word to another be- 
longs to this class. 

Sentences are now given to the pupils, from which they select 
the prepositions ; and others, from which they select all the classes 
of words which they have learned. See Models VIII. and IX. 

They then proceed to construct sentences containing prepositions 
assigned by the teacher ; and others embracing examples of their 
own selection. See Models VI. and XI. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 

§ 8. Teacher. In the sentence, " I saw James or his brother/'* 
what word connects James and brother ? 

Pupil. Or. 

T. What word connects the different parts or clauses of the 
sentence, " James went to school, but John remained at home ? M 

P. But. 

T. Can you think of any other words that are used to connect 
words, or clauses of a sentence ? 

P. And, nor, if, etc. 



ORAL INSTRUCTION. 21 

These words are written on the board in a column headed Con- 
junctions; and the pupils are told that all words used merely as 
connectives belong to this class. 

They are then required to select all the conjunctions from given 
sentences : and afterwards to write sentences containing conjunc- 
tions, and others embracing all the parts of speech which they have 
yet learned. See previous Models. 



THE INTERJECTION. 

§ 9. Teacher, In the expression, " Alas ! I am undone," what 
word is used merely to express strong feeling or emotion ? 

Pupil. Alas. 

T. Can you name any other words that are used to express 
strong or sudden emotion f 

P. Oh, ah, ho, etc. 

These words are written^in a column on the board ; and the pu- 
pils are told that they form a class called Interjections. They are 
then directed to write a few sentences containing examples of this 
part of speech. 



GENERAL EXERCISES ON ALL THE FARTS OF 
SFEECH. 

§ 10. Having considered the several classes of words separately, 
the learners are now prepared to take up a variety of selections from 
their reading lessons, and classify the different words as they occur ; 
writing those of each part of speech in a column by themselves. 
See Models V. and IX. 

They should also devote several lessons to the writing of sen- 
tences which embrace copious examples of all the parts of speech ; 
placing an abbreviation over each word, to indicate the class to 
which it belongs. See Models X. and XI. 

All exercises of this kind should be made progressive. From 
simple sentences, the learners should advance to the construction 
of those which are more difficult ; from difficult sentences, to short 
compositions; and from short compositions, to those of greater 
length. 



22 ORAL INSTRUCTION. 

By pursuing the course here described, the pupils will soon be- 
come familiar with the nature of words in common use, and be able 
to classify them with facility. 



MORE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF THE PARTS 
OF SPEECH. 

§ 11. The subdivisions of the parts of speech, and their most im- 
portant offices, may now be brought under consideration. 

Nouns. 

§ 12. The distinction between proper and common nouns, and the 
distinctions of gender, person, number, and case, may be severally 
introduced by familiar interrogative exercises, similar to those 
which have already been given to aid in distinguishing the parts of 
speech. 

As soon as the pupils understand the nature of proper and com- 
mon nouns, they may be required to select all the nouns from given 
sentences, writing the proper nouns in one column and the com- 
mon nouns in another. They should then construct sentences 
which embrace examples of both proper and common nouns. (See 
previous Models.) The other distinctions of nouns may be illus- 
trated and enforced by similar exercises. 

Adjectives. 
§ 13. The degrees of comparison are now taken up, and made the 
basis of a familiar oral exercise. The distinction between descrip- 
tive and definitive adjectives should also receive some farther atten- 
tion. These distinctions are next exemplified in written exercises. 

Verbs. 

§ 14. The verb is the most difficult and important of all the parts 
of speech, and the teacher should make special effort to impart 
clear and correct views respecting its principal uses. 

The assertion or affirmation expressed by the verb may now be 
explained to the young learner. 

The division of verbs into regular and irregular, and into transi- 
tive and intransitive, with the distinction between the active and the 



ORAL INSTRUCTION. 23 

passive voice, should be introduced and illustrated by practical 
inductive exercises. 

The government of the objective case by a transitive verb, and 
the agreement of a verb with its subject or nominative, may be ex- 
plained in this connection. 

The writing of illustrative sentences, on the part of the pupils, 
follows next in order. See previous Models. 

It is generally better not to attempt a full exhibition of the modes 
and tenses, till pupils have advanced farther in the study. They 
should, however, be taught at this period to distinguish between 
declaratory) conditional, and interrogative sentences ; and to deter- 
mine whether the time denoted by a verb is present, past, or future. 

A general idea of participles, and of auxiliary and compound 
verbs, may also be communicated at this time. 

Each of these subjects should be explained in the familiar, con- 
versational manner already described ; and accompanied by prac- 
tical exercises in the construction of sentences. 

Pronouns, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 

§ 15. The remaining points which demand special consideration in 
these introductory lessons, are the division of pronouns into personal, 
relative, and interrogative, together with the person, number, and 
case of pronouns ; the connection of words and sentences by con- 
junctions; and the relation expressed by prepositions. These 
modifications, like those before presented, should be introduced in 
a familiar and practical manner, and made the basis of exercises in 
the construction of illustrative sentences. 

§ 16. Before closing this course of lessons, the learners should per- 
form several exercises in composition, exemplifying all the impor- 
tant principles to which they have attended. The first exercise 
may embrace the different modifications of the noun ; the second, 
those of the adjective ; the third, those of the verb ; the fourth, 
those of the pronoun ; and the fifth, the principles relating to the 
remaining parts of speech. 

Model XII. 
Modifications of the Noun. 
I am highly gratified, my dear friend, to learn of your safe return from 



24 ORAL INSTRUCTION. 

Ohio. My brother and sister expect to leave Boston in about two weeks. 
They will spend a few days at Springfield, in compliance with your 
father's kind invitation. — I, Thomas Smith, have written this short com- 
position. 

Common Nouns. — Friend, return, brother, sister, weeks, days, compli- 
ance, father's, invitation, composition. 

Proper Nouns. — Ohio, Boston, Springfield, Thomas Smith. 

Noun in the Masculine Gender. — Brother, father's, Thomas Smith. 

Noun in the Feminine Gender. — Sister. 

Nouns in t7ie Neuter Gender. — Return, Ohio, Boston, weeks, days, 
Springfield, compliance, invitation, composition. 

Noun in the Common Gender. — Friend. 

Noun in the First Person. — Thomas Smith. 

Noun in the Second Person. — Friend. 

Nouns in the Third Person. — Return, , Ohio, brother, sister, Boston, 
weeks, days, Springfield, compliance, father's, invitation, composi- 
tion. 

Nouns in the Singular Number. — Friend, return, Ohio, brother, sister, 
Boston, Springfield, compliance, father's, invitation, Thomas Smith, 
composition. 

Nouns in the Plural Number. — Weeks, days. 

Nouns in the Nominative Case. — Brother, sister, Thomas Smith. 

Noun in the Possessive Case. — Father's. 

Nouns in the Objective Case. — Return, Ohio, Boston, weeks, days, 
Springfield, compliance, invitation, composition. 

Noun in the Case Independent. — Friend. 

§ 1 7. After the pupils have in this manner exemplified the various 
modifications of all the parts of speech, they should be required to 
write several compositions of considerable length, and parse each 
word by itself. Thus, in parsing a noun, the learner should tell 
why it is a noun ; whether it is proper or common, and why ; its 
gender, and why ; person, and why ; number, and why ; case, and 
why. If it is in the nominative case, he should point out the verb 
of which it is the subject ; if in the possessive, the noun denot- 
ing the object possessed ; if in the objective, the word which gov- 
erns it. A similar course should be adopted in parsing all the other 
parts of speech. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§ 18. Grammar is the science which treats of the prin- 
ciples of language. 

English Grammar teaches the art of speaking and writ- 
ing the English Language correctly. 

§ 19. Grammar is divided into four parts ; — Orthog- 
raphy r , Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography treats of letters, and the proper method 
of combining them to form syllables and words. 

Etymology treats of the classification of words, their 
derivation, and their various modifications. 

Syntax treats of the construction of sentences, accord- 
ing to the established laws of speech. 

Prosody treats of accent, quantity, and the laws of 
versification. 



PART I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

§ 20. Orthography treats of letters, and the proper 
method of combining them to form syllables and words. 

LETTERS. 
§21. A letter is a mark or character used to represent 
an elementary sound of the human voice. 

The word letter, like many other terms used in orthography, is often 
applied to the sound represented, as well as the written character. 

The letters of a language, taken collectively, are called its Alpha- 

What is grammar ? What does English grammar teach ? How is 
grammar divided 1 Of what does Orthography treat f Etymology ? 
Syntax % Prosody ? What is a letter 1 What are the letters of a lan- 
guage called ? 

3 



26 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

bet The English alphabet consists of twenty-six letters, which 
have the following different forms : — 

Eoman. Italic. Old English. Script. 



Capital 


. Small 


Capital. 


Small. 


Capital. 


Small. 


Capital. 


Small. 


•Names. 


A 


a 


A 


a 


a 


a 


©^ 


a 


A. 


B 


b 


B 


b 


3 


b 


<j" 


4 


Bee. 


C 


c 


C 


c 


€ 


c 


<df 


c 


See. 


D 


d 


D 


d 


m 


b 


^ 


d 


Dee. 


E 


e 


E 


€ 


€ 


t 


^ 


e 


E. 


E 


f 


F 


f 


J 


f 


^ 


/ 


Eff. 


G 


g 


G 


or 


<& 


9 


J? 


/ 


Jee. 


H 


h 


H 


h 


4 


I) 


£T 


4 


Aitch. 


I 


i 


I 


i 


1 


t 


JF 


I 


I. 


J 


J 


J 


3 


1 


! 


/ 


/ 


Jay. 


K 


k 


K 


k 


E 


k 




4 


Kay. 


L 


1 


L 


I 


t 


I 


'■sg 


/ 


Ell. 


M 


m 


M 


m 


M. 


m 


<JL 


97Z 


Em. 


N 


n 


N 


n 


N 


n 


JP 


n 


En. 


O 


o 








© 











0. . 


P 


P 


P 


P 


* 


V 


0> 


> 


Pee. 


Q 


q 


Q 


9 


# 


q 


& 


7 


Rue. 


R 


r 


R 


r 


H 


r 


e& 


t 


Ar. 


S 


s 


S 


s 


% 





&> 


4 


Ess. 


T 


t 


T 


t 


% 


t 


sr 


t 


Tee. 


U 


u 


U 


u 


n 


it 


m 


u, 


U. 


V 


V 


V 


V 


b 


V 


& 


V 


Vee. 


w 


w 


w 


w 


to 


to 


w 


w 


Double-u 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


03 


X 


Eks. 


Y 


y 


Y 


y 


-.« 


n 


9 


f 


Wv. 


Z 


z 


z 


z 


z 


? 


fi*-_ 




Zee. 



CAPITALS AND ITALICS. 27 

£7 and v were formerly considered the same letter, and were used in- 
discriminately, the one for the other ; as, hmw for have, and chvrch for 
church. 

The sounds of i and j were both originally represented by the letter i ; 
as, lames for James. 

When the diphthongs ce and ce have either of the sounds of e, the let- 
ters are united in printing. 

Examples : — iEgis, diaeresis, oesophagus, antoeci. 



CAPITALS AND ITALICS. 

§ 22. The following classes of words should commence 
with capital letters : — 

1. The first word of a sentence. 

2. The first word of every line in poetry. 

3. The first word of a direct quotation. 

Examples : — And Nathan said unto David, " Thou art the man."— 
Remember the ancient maxim, " Know thyself." 
An indirect quotation may be introduced without the use of a capital. 
Example : — It is recorded of him who " spake three thousand prov- 
erbs," that " his songs were a thousand and five." 

4. Words used as names of the Deity. 

Examples : — " Our Father, who art in Heaven." — " Remember 
now thy Creator, in the days of thy youth." 

5. Proper names and titles of honor or distinction. 

Examples : — The city of Boston ; — The Honorable Daniel Webster ; 
Sir Matthew Hale ; — Pliny the Younger. 

6. Common nouns personified. 

Examples : — "If Pain comes into a heart, he is quickly followed by 
Pleasure ; and if Pleasure enters, you may be sure that Pain is not 
far off." — Addison. 

" And Discipline at length, 
Overlooked and unemployed, fell sick and died. 
Then Study languished, Emulation slept, 
And Virtue fled." — Cowper. 

What are the several classes of words which commence with capitals ? 



28 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

7. Every important word in a phrase used as a title 
^ or caption. 

Examples: — u Prescotfs History of the Conquest of Mexico" — " Vir- 
tue the only true Source of Nobility" — " The American Board of 
Commissioners for Foreign Missions" — " The New York Historical 
Society" — " The American Revolution" 

The pronoun I and the interjection should also be 
written in capitals. 

Examples : — " Must / endure all this ? " — " Come forth, ye chil- 
dren of gladness, come ! " 

Most adjectives derived from proper names should commence 
with capitals. 

Examples : — "A Grecian education was considered necessary to 
form the Roman orator, poet, or artist." — Whelpley. "The 
Gopernican system is that which is held to be the true system of 
the world." — Olmsted. 

A personal pronoun referring to the Deity is sometimes commenced 
with a capital. 

Examples : — " All that we possess is God's, and we are under obliga- 
tion to use it all as He wills." — Wayland. 

" Will He not hear thee 
Who the young ravens heareth from their nest f 
Will He not guard thy rest ? " — Hemans. 
There are also numerous cases in which words may commence either 
with capitals or small letters, according to the taste of the writer. 

Short, detached pieces of writing, are often composed entirely of capi- 
tals. For examples, see title-pages, heads of chapters and sections, mon- 
umental inscriptions, cards, etc. 

§28. Italia letters are those which stand inclining. 
(See the Alphabet, p. 26.) This sentence is printed in 
Italics. 

When an author wishes to distinguish any particular 
word or phrase, for the sake of emphasis, or for any other 
purpose, it is generally printed in Italics. 

[The questions and directions which are printed in Italics, are designed 
to be omitted by beginners.] 

What two words of one letter are always written and printed in capi- 
tals ? What adjectives usually commence with capitals ? What are Italic 
letters ? For what purpose are they employed ? 



CAPITALS AND ITALICS. 29 

Examples : — " If we regard enunciation and pronunciation as the 
mechanical part of elocution ; inflection, emphasis, and pausing, 
may be designated as its intellectual part." — Russell. " To be per- 
fectly polite, one must have great presence of mind, with a delicate 
and quick sense of propriety." — Mrs. Chapone. 

When a word is used merely as a word, it should generally be 
printed in Italics. 

Examples : — " The adjective same is often used as a substitute." — 
Webster. " Who is applied to persons, and which to animals and 
inanimate things'." — Murray. 

Words and phrases introduced into English writings from foreign 
languages, are generally expressed in Italics. 

Examples : — " An adjournment sine die, is an adjournment without 
fixing the time of resuming business." — Webster's Diet. " The 
White Pine is, par excellence, a New England tree." — N. A. Review. 
Sentences of special importance are often printed entirely in Italics. 

When a particular word, phrase, or sentence, is designed to be 
made still more conspicuous than it would be if expressed in Italics, 
it is printed in capitals, 

Examples : — " Observation and Experiment constitute the basis 
of the science of Mechanics." — Olmsted. " To the numerous 
class of young men in the United States, who are mainly depen- 
dent on their own resources for knowledge, or respectability, one 
of the most important counsels of wisdom which can be addressed, 
is, Study tour own character and prospects." — B. B. 
Edwards. 

When a word or phrase, embraced in an Italic sentence, is to be 

distinguished from the rest, it is generally printed in Roman letters. 

If it is particularly important, it should be expressed in capitals. 

Examples : — " The grand clew to all syntactical parsing is the sense." — 

G. Brown. " Hydrostatics is that branch of Natural Philosophy 

lohich treats of the mechanical properties and agencies of Liquids." — 

Olmsted. " To find the surface of a Regular Solid." — Day. 

Select examples. Specify the several circumstances ivhich require the use 
of Italics. How is a word or phrase rendered still more conspicuous than it 
would be if expressed in Italics ? How is a word or phrase distinguished 
from (he rest, in an Italic sentence ? 
3* 



30 GPTHOGRAPHY. 

In the common English version of the Scriptures, Italics are used 
to indicate those words which are not found in the original. 

Examples : — " After two days was the feast of the passover ; " — in 
the original, " After two days was the passover." " There are yet 
four months, and then cometh the harvest;" — -in .the original, 
" There are yet four months, and the harvest cometh." 

§ 24. In writing, it is customary to underline such 
words as would be italicised in printing. 

Example. 
" Q/t c/oeo not teem fiowi'v/e, even atrez /ne 

testimony oif ouz denied" 

EXERCISES. 

[After studying attentively the rules respecting the use of capitals and 
Italics, pupils should be required to select from other works a variety of 
examples to which they respectively apply. The following directions 
will serve as a guide in performing this exercise. Those which are 
printed in Italics, are designed to be omitted by beginners.] 

§ 25. Point out examples of words commencing with capitals at 
the beginning of a sentence ; — at the beginning of a direct quota- 
tion. Select several names representing the Deity, which com- 
mence with capitals ; — several examples of proper names and 
honorary titles. Examples of common nouns personified ; — of im- 
portant words in a title or caption. Examples of the pronoun I and 
the interjection 0, Examples of adjectives derived from proper 
names. Examples of short pieces of writing, printed entirely in 
capitals. 

Point out examples of important words and phrases, printed in 
Italics. Examples of entire sentences in Italics. Examples of 
words, phrases, and sentences, in capitals. Examples, in Italic sen- 
tences, of words, and phrases, printed in capitals or small Roman 
letters. Examples of words used merely as words. Examples of 
foreign words and phrases employed in English writings. Examples 
of Italic words in the Scriptures. 

For what purpose are Italics employed in our translation of the Scrip- 
tures ? Select examples. How are important words and phrases distin- 
guished in writing ? 



VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 31 

Write a sentence containing some prominent word or phrase, and 
distinguish it from the rest by underlining it. 



VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 

§ 26. The most general division of letters is into vowels 
and consonants. 

A vowel* is a letter which represents a free and unin- 
terrupted sound of the human voice. The vowels are a, 
e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

A consonant^ is a letter which represents a sound that 
is materially modified by some interruption during its pas- 
sage through the organs of speech. 

The consonants are 5, c, d, f, g, j\ k, I, m, n, p, q, r, 
s 9 t, v, x^ z, and sometimes w and y. JET, which is a sim- 
ple breathing, is also classed with the consonants. J 

What is the most general division of letters ? What is a vowel ? 
Enumerate the vowels. What is a consonant ? Enumerate the con- 
sonants. 

* " A vowel is an utterance of the voice receiving its peculiar character 
from the position of the organs ; and a consonant is an action of the organs 
of speech, accompanied by breath or voice." — Smart. 

" A vowel is an elemental sound which may be formed without bringing 
the articulating organs into contact with any part of the mouth. A conso- 
nant is an elemental sound which calinot be formed but by some contact 
between the parts of the mouth." — Day. See also Walker's Principles of 
English Pronunciation, Webster's Dictionary, and Wright's Orthography. 

t A consonant has commonly been defined " a letter which cannot be 
perfectly sounded without the aid of a vowel ; " but this seems not to be 
the true idea of this class of letters. In pronouncing a syllable commenc- 
ing with a consonant, a distinct sound is always uttered before the vowel 
sound is commenced ; and we have many syllables in which the vowel, 
though written, is not heard at all in pronunciation, as in the words taken, 
burdened, which are pronounced tak-n, burd-nd. There are instances, also, 
in which a consonant is sounded as a distinct syllable, without the use even 
of a written vowel, as in the words chas-m, rhyth-m. 

The etymology of the term consonant (sounding with) seems to have 
misled many grammarians, and thus aided in perpetuating the error here 
alluded to. 

X " The claims of h to be regarded as a letter have been denied by many 



32 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

W is a consonant when it is not preceded by a vowel in the same 
syllable ; as in win, swift, thwart. 

W is usually considered as a vowel, when it follows another 
vowel in the same syllable ; as in new, how. 

Y is a consonant when it begins a syllable, and is immediately 
followed by a vowel in the same syllable ; as in yet, youth. 

In all other cases, y is a vowel ; as in very, rhyme, beryl. 

§ 27. Yowel sounds are called open or close, according to the rela- 
tive size of the opening through which the voice passes in forming 
them. Thus, a in father, and o in nor, are called open sounds, be- 
cause they are formed by a wide opening of the organs of speech ; 
while e in me, and u in rule, are called close sounds, because the 
organs are nearly closed in uttering them. 

§ 28. Two vowels combined in the same syllable, are 
called a diphthong ; as in coil. 

A diphthong in which both vowels are sounded, is called a proper 
diphthong ; as in oil, boy. 

A diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded, is call- 
ed an improper diphthong, or digraph ; as in rain, eat, believe. 

§ 29. Three vowels combined in the same syllable, are 
called a triphthong ; as in eye, awe, lieu, beauty. 

§ 30. Those consonant sounds which are formed by the vocal 
organs, during the passage of a mere breathing, are called aspirates. 
They are represented by p in map, t in hut, k in book, f in fine, 
s in see, th in thin, sh in ash, ch in church, and h in hero. 

When is w a consonant ? Examples. When a vowel ? Examples 
When is y a consonant ? Examples. When a vowel. Examples. Explain 
the terms open and close, as applied to vowels. Define a diphthong. Ex- 
amples. A proper diphthong. Examples. An improper diphthong. Exam- 
ples. A triphthong. Examples. What consonants are called aspirates ? 
Enumerate them. 

grammarians ; and certainly, when it is remembered that the sound of this 
letter is produced by a mere emission of the breath, without any conform- 
ation of the organs of speech, this opinion would seem well-founded. 
There are others, however, who insist that there is no feature in the 
sound or qualities of this letter, which it does not possess in common with 
some other consonants ; and consequently any attempt to invalidate its 
claim to the distinction, militates equally against them." — Brande's Eve. 



VOWELS. 33 

§ 31. The cognate or corresponding sounds, which are respec- 
tively formed by a similar disposition of the organs, during the pas- 
sage of the voice, are called vocal consonants. They are represented 
by b in but, d in did, g in go, v in vain, z in zero, th in that, z in 
azure, and j in just. In a natural whisper, these sounds cannot, of 
themselves, be readily distinguished from the corresponding aspi- 
rates. H has no cognate. 

f Vocal b, d, g, v, z* ih,-\ z,§ /. 
Cognates, < :::::::: 

(Aspirate p, t, k, f s, th,% six, cli. 

§ 32. The remaining sounds, m in man, n in no, ng in sing, I in 
look, r in race, w in world, and y in youth, though produced by the 
voice, may also be distinctly uttered in a whisper. They are hence 
called intermediate or neutral consonants. In forming the first three 
of these, — m, n, and ng, — the voice is made to pass principally 
through the nose, and they are on this account called nasal con- 
sonants. 

§ 33. An aspirate and a vocal consonant cannot easily be pronounced in 
immediate combination. Hence, when they occur together in writing, 
one is generally changed, in pronunciation, into its cognate or correspond- 
ing sound. Thus, looked, dropped, confessed, are pronounced lookH, drop% 
confesH. 

A neutral consonant will readily unite in pronunciation with either an 
aspirate or a vocal consonant ; as in mend, meant ; shelve, shelf. 

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

[In performing the exercises which accompany the elementary sounds, 
the pupil should first pronounce one of the words containing a given ele- 
ment, and then utter distinctly the elementary sound by itself. The 
other examples should be uttered successively in the same manner.] 

VOWELS. 
§ 34. A has six sounds : — 
1. Long; as in late, base. 

What are vocal consonants? Enumerate them. What aspirate is the 
cognate of hi — of d ? — of gin go ? — of v ? — of z in zero ? — of th in 
that ? — of z in azure ? — of j in just 1 Which of the aspirates has no 
cognate? What are intermediate or neutral consonants? Enumerate them. 
Which are the nasal consonants ? Why so called ? 

* Z in zero. f Th in that, \ Th in thin. § Zin azure. 



34 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Exercise : '• — Yale, a ; hale, a ; mane, a ; pace, a ; lade, a ; 
safe, a ; range, a ; ancient, a ; display, a ; relate, a. 

2. Grave ; as in father. 

Exercise : — Mart, a ; art, a ; star, a ; large, a ; calm, a ; 
alarm, a. 

3. Broad ; as in fall, walk. 

Exercise : — All, a ; call, a ; hall, a ; talk, a ; war, a ; malt, 
a ; altar, a ; water, a. 

4. Short ; as in man, hat 

Exercise : — ^.n, a ; can, a ; lad, a ; sat, a ; and a ; catch, 
a ; carry, a ; began, a. 

5. The sound heard in care, hare.* 

Exercise: — Rare, a; fare, a; glare, a; careful, a; en- 
snare, a. 

6. Intermediate between a in wa/i and a in father ; as in grass, 
pass, branch. Many persons pronounce this a incorrectly, giving 
it either the grave or the short sound.f 

Exercise : — Fast, a ; ant, a ; glass, a ; prance, a ; glance, a. 
A is also employed to represent, — ■ 

(1) The sound of o short ; as, what 

(2) The sound of e short ; as, many. 

What are the different sounds of &? Give an example of each ; pro- 
nouncing first a word which contains it, and then the elementary sound by 
itself 

* Walker, Webster, Sheridan, Fulton and Knight, Kenrick, Jones, and 
Nares, give to a in care the long sound of a, as in fate. Page and Day give 
it the short sound of a, as in mat. See Page's Normal Chart, and Day's 
Art of Elocution. 

Worcester and Perry make the sound of a in care a separate element; 
and this distinction is also recognized by Russell, Mandeville, and Wright. 
See Russell's Lessons in Enunciation, Mandeville's Elements of Reading 
and Oratory, and Wright's Orthography. 

f Perry, Jones, Nares, Webster, and Day, give to a in grass the grave 
sound, as in father; while Walker, Jameson," and Russell, give it the short 
sound, as in man. But good speakers generally pronounce a in grass, 
plant, etc., as a distinct element, intermediate between the grave and the 
short sound. 

" To pronounce the words fast, last, glass, grass, dance, etc., with the 
proper sound of short a, as in hat, has the appearance of affectation ; and 
to pronounce them with the full Italian sound of a, as in part, father, seems 
to bolder on vulgarity." — Worcester. This view is also adopted by Smart, 



VOWELS. 35 

§ 35. E has three sounds : — 
* 1. Long ; as in me, complete. 

Exercise : — We, e ; he, e ; scene, e ; mete, e ; scheme, e ; 
supreme, e. 

2. Short ; as in let, men. 

Exercise: — Fell, e; egg, e; pet, e; well, e; bless, e; ten, e; 
preface, e ; forget, e. 

3. Obtuse ; as in term, fertile.* 

Exercise: — Fern, e; pert, e; mercy, e; alert, e; inter- 
nal, e. 
E is also employed to represent, — 

(1) The sound of a in care; as, there, where. 

(2) The sound of short i; as, England. 
E is often silent, especially at the end of a word. 
§ 36. Z has two sounds : — 

1. Long; as in pine, fine, excite. 

This sound consists of two simple elements ; the first of which is 
nearly the sound of a in past, and the second that of short i. 

Exercise: — Ice,i; time, i; kind, i; ire, i; ripe, i; idle, i; 

incline, i. 

2. Short ; as in pit, live. 

Exercise : — In, i ; his, i ; dip, i ; fix, i ; wish, i ; since, i ; 
intend, i; begin, i. 
/ is also employed to represent, — - 

(1) The sound of long e ; as, machine, police. 

(2) The sound of e in term ; as, bird, affirm. 

What are the sounds of e ? Give examples of each. What are the 
vowel sounds of i ? Give examples of each. 

the most discriminating and accurate of modern English orthogpists, and by 
Fulton and Knight. The following is the language employed by Smart : — 
" Surely, in a case like this, there can be no harm in avoiding the censure 
of both parties by shunning the extreme that offends the taste of each ; and? 
this medium sound in the case in question may be safely affirmed to be 
the one actually in use by the best speakers." 

* " Those who can perceive a difference between the sounds of a and o in 
the words far, cart, nor, border, and the proper short sounds of these letters 
in fat, carry, not, borrow, will not find it difficult to perceive an analogous 
difference between the sounds of e in learn, verse, mercy, and in men, very, 



36 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



I is sometimes employed to represent the consonant sound of y; 
as in filial, christian, union, alien. 

§37. has three sounds : — 

1. Long; as in note, remote. • 

Exercise : — Old, o ; tone, o ; globe, o ; hose, o ; rode, o ; 
post, o; sofa, o. 

2. Short ; as in not, folly. 

Exercise : — Stop, o ; odd, o ; lot, o ; clock, o ; doctrine, o. 

3. Close ; as in move, approve. 

Exercise : — Do, o ; to, o ; improve, o. 

is also employed to represent, — 

(1) The sound of a in fall ; as, nor, fortune. 

(2) The sound of e in term ; as, world, attorney. 

(3) The sound of short i ; as, women. 

(4) The sound of short u ; as, son, done. 

(5) The sound of u in full ; as, wolf. 

In one and some of its derivatives, o has the sound of short u, preceded 
by the consonant sound of w. 

§ 38. U has three sounds : — 

1. Long; as in tune, lute, juvenile. 

For the sake of greater ease in pronunciation, the consonant 
sound of y is often prefixed to the long sound of u ; as in use, 
unite, universe. 

Exercise: — Due, u; assume, u; reduce, u; union, u; use- 
ful, u; educate, u; opulent, u. 

2. Short ; as in run, shutter. 

Exercise : — Bud, u ; us, u ; shut, u ; dust, u ; dumb, u / 
rebuff, u. 

What consonant sound does i represent ? Examples. What are the 
sounds of o ? Give examples of each. What are the sounds of u ? 

merry ; of i mfir, bird, and mpin % mirror; of u in hurdle, turn, and in tun, 
hurry ; of y in myrtle, and in lyric. These vowels have all nearly or quite 
the same sound, as will be perceived in the words her, sir, fur, myrrh, herd, 
bird, surd; but their proper short sounds are widely different, when fol- 
lowed by r, as well as by other consonants, as in merry, mirror, Mtirray."— 
Worcester. See also Smart's Principles of Pronunciation, Mandeville's 
Reading and Oratory, ancf Barber's Grammar of Elocution. 



DIPHTHONGS. 37 

3. Middle ; as in full, bush. 

Exercise : — Put, u ; push, u ; pulley, u ; cushion, u. 

U is also employed to represent, — 

(1) The sound of e in term ; as, burn, furl. 

(2) The sound of short e ; as, bury. 

(3) The sound of short i ; as, busy. 

(4) The sound of o in move ; as true, rude. 

U has sometimes the consonant sound of w ; as in persuade, languid. 

§ 39. W is never used as a vowel, except when it forms a part of a 
diphthong. It has then the sound of u. See Diphthongs. 

§ 40. Y, as a vowel, is employed to represent, — 

(1) The sound of long i; as, %me, rhyme. 

(2) The sound of short i ; as, hymn, crystal. 

(3) The sound of e in term ; as, myrrh, myrtle. 

§41. In unaccented syllables, the vowel sounds are often so much ob- 
scured as to be hardly distinguishable. The following examples will 
serve to illustrate this remark: — altar, alter, murmur, martyr. 



DIPHTHONGS. 

§ 42. The word ay, signifying yes, is a proper diphthong. The 
first of its component sounds is that of a in father ; and the second, 
that of short i. It is often written aye. 

Oi is generally used as a proper diphthong. It is composed of a 
in all, and i in pit ; as to*!, recoil. 

On, when used as a proper diphthong, is composed of a in father, 
and o in move ; as, house, around. 

Ow, when a proper diphthong, represents the sound of ou in 
bound; as, town, crowd. 

Give examples of each. What vojj)el sound does y represent ? Give ex- 
amples of each. What are the component sounds of the proper diphthong ay ? 
Of what sounds is the proper diphthong oi composed ? Examples. What 
sounds unite to form the proper diphthong ou ? Examples. What sound is 
represented by the proper diphthong ow ? Examples. 

4 



38 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Oy represents the sound of the proper diphthong oi ; as, boy, 
oyster. 

CONSONANTS. 

§ 43. B has but one sound, as in but. 

Exercise : — Be, b ; 5oat, b ; orb, b ; barb, b ; double, b. 

B is generally silent after m and before t, in the same syllable ; as in 
dumb, debt. 

§44. C, standing before a consonant, or before either of the 
vowels, a, o, u, or at the end of a word, represents the sound of k ; 
as in care, conduct, athletic. 

Before e, i, and y, c generally represents the sound of s ; as in 
census, city. 

Ce and ci, followed by another vowel, have often the sound of sh, as in 
ocean, social ; and sometimes of she, as in associate, oceanic. 

C has in some words the sound of z; as in sacrifice, suffice. 

E is sometimes used after c, merely to give it the soft sound, as in 
lace, peaceable, practice ; and u in like manner, to give it the hard sound, 
as in circuit. 

C is sometimes silent ; as in czar, muscle, indict. 

Ch has generally the sound heard in church. But in Scripture 
proper names, with the exception of Rachel, in most words derived 
from the Greek, and in a few others, ch represents the sound of k ; 
as in Enoch, Chaldea ; — chorus, achromatic ; — chemist, alchemy. 
In words derived from the French, ch represents the sound of sh ; 
as in chaise, chagrin. 

Ch is silent in drachm, yacht ; and in schism and its derivatives. 

§ 45. D has the sound heard in did. 

Exercise : — Do, d ; deep, d; aid, d; day, d; deduce, d ; 
indeed, d. 

When the termination ed immediately follows an aspirate, and is not 
pronounced as a separate syllable, it represents the sound of t ; as in 
stopped, fixed. 

In the first syllables of Wednesday and stadtholder, d is silent. 

What sound is represented by the proper diphthong oy 1 Examples. How 
many sounds Kas b ? Examples. What sounds is c used to represent ? Give 
examples. Utter the principal sound of ch. What other sounds are repre- 
sented by ch ? Utter the sound of d. 



CONSONANTS. 39 

§ 46. F has the sound heard in fate, scarf; except in of where 
it represents the sound of v. 

Exercise : — Fall, f; if f; fife, f: field, f; safe, f; 
«x>/, /• 

§47. G, before a, o, and u, has a hard sound; as in gate, gone. 
It is also hard before all the consonants, except g soft, as in glad ; 
and at the end of a word, as in dog. 

Exercise:— Gay, g; gold, g; gone, g ; log, g / gig, g; re- 
gain, g. 

Before e, i, and y, g usually represents the sound of / ; as in gin- 
ger, gypsum. 

In a few words adopted from the Erench and Italian, gn has the sound 
of ny ; as in vignette, pronounced vinyet. 

(x is silent before m or n, in the same syllable ; as in phlegm, consign, 
gnomon. It is also silent in seraglio. 

Gh, at the beginning of a word, represents the sound of g hard ; 
as in ghost, ghastly. In other situations it is frequently silent ; as 
in thought, plough. 

Gh, at the end of a word, is sometimes pronounced like /, as in 
laugh, rough ; and sometimes like g hard, as in burgh. 

§ 48. H has the aspirate sound heard in he. 

Exercise : — i7at. h ; home, h ; haH, h ; harm, h ; beAave, h. 
H is sometimes silent ; as in heir, hour, honest, rhomb. 

§49. J has the sound heard in jar ; except in hallelujah, where 
it represents the consonant sound of y. 

Exercise: — Joy, j ; /ust, /; jar, j ; jolt, j; judge, j. 

§ 50. K is invariably hard ; as in look. 

Exercise: — iHng, k; &ind, k; &eep, k; bul&, k; elk-, k. 

K is silent before n in the same syllable ; as in knife. In English 
words, k is never doubled ; but this combination occurs in a few Scripture 
proper names ; as, Hahakkuk, Bakbakkar, Hakkoz, Bukkiah. 

§ 51. L has but one sound ; as in live, slow. 

Utter the sound of f. What is the principal sound of g ? Give examples. 
What other sound does g represent ? Give examples. What sounds are rep- 
resented by gh ? Give examples. Utter the sound ofh.) — the sound of j ; — 
the sound of k ; — the sound of 1. 



40 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Exercise: — Low, I; lark, I; lute, I; fail, I ; f/aw, I. 

L is sometimes silent before a consonant ; as in walk, calm. 

> / 

§ 52. Ji" has but one sound ; as in man. 

Exercise: — -Aim, m', me, m; home, m; map, m; murmur, m. 

Mis silent when it stands at the beginning of a word, and is imme- 
diately followed by n ; as in mnemonic, mnason. 

§ 53. N has two sounds : — 

1. The sound heard in no, nine. 

Exercise : — On, n ; way, n ; name, n ; alone, n. 

2. The ringing sound heard in bank, thing, singing. 
Exercise : —Think, n ; ink, n ; brink, n ; drank, n ; thank, n. 

N is silent when it ends a syllable and is immediately preceded by m or 
I ; as in hymn, column, kiln. 

§ 54. P has the sound heard in pine ; except in cupboard, where 
it represents the sound of b. 

Exercise : — Pay, p ; help, p ; post, p ; U2irp,p ; people, p. 

P is sometimes silent ; as in psalm, pneumatics, receipt. 

Ph generally represents the sound of f; as in philosopher. In 
Stephen it is pronounced like v. 

In phthisic and its derivative phthisical, ph is silent. 

§ 55. Q represents the sound of k, and is always followed by w, 
which, in this connection, generally has its consonant sound ; as in 
quiet, conquest. But in some cases, qu is pronounced like k simply ; 
as in conquer. 

§ 56. J?* has the sound heard in rare. 

Exercise: — Run, r; read, r; robe, r; trust, r; harm, r; 
war, r ; absorb, r. 

Utter the sound of m„ How many sounds has n % Give examples. Ex- 
amples of the sound of p. What sound is generally represented by ph 1 
What sound does q represent ? Utter the sound of r. 

* The following quotations present a general view of the different opin- 
ions which exist among orthoepists respecting this letter : ■ — 

" R has one constant sound in English."— Johnson. The same view is 
adopted by Webster, Perry, Kenrick, Sheridan, Jones, Jameson, Knowles, 
and others. 

" The rough sound of r is rather a rhetorical refinement, than an elemen- 
tary sound." — Frazee. 

" Some have given the trilled r as an element. This is believed to be only 



CONSONANTS. 41 

§ 57. S has a. sharp, hissing sound ; as in say. 

Exercise : — So, s ; sage, s ; thus, .5 ; mist, s ; exist, s. 
S is also used to represent the sound of z in zeal; as in rose, odds* 

"When s is immediately followed by the consonant sound of y, the two 
sounds combined are softened into the sound of sh, as in the words sure, 
censure, torsion ; or into the sound of z in azure, as in the words leisure, 
ambrosial When s is doubled, both letters often take the sound of sh ; as 
in assure, passion. 

S is silent in isle, demesne, corps, and viscount. 

§58. T has the sound heard in tide. 

Exercise: — At, t; soft, t; fen, t; time, t; intend, t. 

Ti, followed by a vowel, has usually the sound of sh, or she ; as in 
portion, "partiality. 
Tis occasionally silent ; as in christen, depot. 

Th has two sounds : — 

1. Vocal; as in then, they. 

Exercise : — This, th ; ^ough, th ; beneath, th ; other, th. 

2. Aspirate ; as in thing, thought. 

Exercise : — Throng, th ; thin, th ; theme, th ; fdlih, th. 

§ 59. V has but one sound ; as in vine. 

Exercise : — Fie, v ; view, v ; prove, v ; cave, v. 

What sound has s ? Give examples. What other sound is represented 
by s ? Utter the sound of t. What are the sounds of th? Examples of 
each. Utter the sound of v. 

a modification of the liquid r as heard in for. It may be trilled before a 
vocal element [vowel] in the same syllable, as in pray, practice. It should 
never be attempted in public, till it can be trilled gracefully and with fa- 
cility. The excessive trilling of the r, as practised by some speakers, is a 
great fault." — Page's Normal Chart. 

" R initial, or before a vowel, is always hard, though not rolled. R final, 
or before a consonant, is always soft, but never silent." — Russell. See also 
Walker, Rush, and Barber. 

" R should be trilled when it precedes a vowel, as in roll, crush ; but when 
it follows a vowel, as in air, orb, it should be made smooth." — Comstoclc. 

" In good metropolitan usage, this letter has its trilled consonant sound 
only when it begins, or is one of a combination of consonants that begin, a 
syllable ; or when, finishing one syllable, it also begins the next : as in the 
following words, in which r is a real consonant, and stops the vowel, as any 
other consonant would do under the same circumstances : ar-id (equivalent 
to ar-rid), ber-ry, spir-it (equivalent to spir-rit), sor-ry, cur-ry. But when r, 
finishing one word or syllable, does not also serve to articulate the next, it 
is merely a guttural vibration, having the character of a vowel more than 
of a consonant." — Smart. 

4* 



42 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

§ 60. W, when a consonant, has but one sound *\s in way, swift. 
Exercise : — Wise, w ; z^orld, w ; wander, w. 

W is sometimes silent; as in write, whole, answer, sword. 
Wh is pronounced as if written hw. Thus the words where, while, 
when, are pronounced hwere, hwile, hwen* 

§ 61. X represents, — - 

(1) The sound of hs ; as in axle, execute 

(2) The sound of gz ; as in existence, exonerate. 

At the beginning of a word, x takes the sound of z ; as in Xenophon, 
xylography. 

§ 62. Y, when a consonant, has but one sound ; as in year, youth. 
Exercise:— Yet, y; young, y; yoke, y; you, y. 

§ 63. Z has usually the sound heard in zeal. 

Exercise : — Zone, z ; ooze, z ; prize, z ; zebra, z. 
When z is followed by the consonant sound of y, the combination 
has the sounds heard in azure. 

Exercise : — Seizure, z ; glazier, z. 

§ 64. The great diversity of languages from which English words 
are derived, has occasioned much irregularity and inconsistency in 
our orthography. Our alphabet is both redundant and defective. 
C is represented by k or s ; qbyk ; and x by ks or gz. The remain- 
ing twenty-three letters are employed to represent about forty ele- 
mentary sounds. Many of the letters are used to denote several 
different sounds, and many of them are sometimes silent. 

Utter the consonant sound of w. What sounds are represented by x ! Ex- 
amples of each. Utter the consonant sound of y ; — the two sounds of x. 
What redundancy is there in the English alphabet ? What defect ? 

* " The Saxons, as Dr. Lowth observes, place the h before the w, as 
hwat ; and this is certainly its true place ; for in the pronunciation of all 
words beginning with ivh, we ought to breathe forcibly before we pronounce 
the w. ' ' — Walker. 

u Wh, which Dr. Rush has recognized as a distinct element, are but ap- 
parently such. They differ in no respect from the separate elements, w and 
h, — only that, in the modern orthography of words, they are inverted, as to 
their order. The ancient orthography of the language placed them as they 
stand in orthoepy, — hw ; thus hweat, hwen, etc." — Murdoch and Russell's 
Vocal Culture. 

See also Smart, Worcester, and Webster. 



VOWELS. 43 

GENERAL EXERCISES; 

EMBRACING ALL THE ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 

[In performing these exercises, great care should be taken to give each 
element the same sound, when uttered by itself, that it has in the word 
which contains it. See the directions given on p. 33.] 

§ 65. VOWELS. 

1. A in late; ei, ey. 

Name, a ; favor, a ; debate, a"; weigh, ei ; obey, ey. 

2. A in father. 

Far, a ; large, a ; balm, a ; arm, a ; calm, a. 

3. A in all ; o. - 

Call, a; walk, a; also, a; nor, o; border, o. 

4. A in man. 

Hat, a ; lad, a ; cancel, a / outran, a. 

5. A in care ; e. 

Dare, a ; snare, a ; there, e ; where, e. 

6. A in past. 

Fast, a ; mast, a ; grass, a ; branch, a ; advance, a. 

7. i? in m#; i. 

We, e ; era, e ; complete, e ; marine, i ; caprice, i. 

8. JE in Zetf ; a, w. 

Met, e ; express, e ; any, a ; many, a ; bwry, u. 

9. ^ in term; i, o, w, y. 

Fern, e ; fervid, e ; mirth, i ; world, o ; burn, w ; myrrh, y. 

10. I'm pine; y. 

Sign, £ ; life, t ; decide, i ; comply, y. 

11. I'm pit; e, o, w, ?/. 

Sit, i ; if, i ; timid, i ; .England, e ; women, o ; busy, u ; hymn, 
y ; symptom, y. 



44 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

12. in note ; ew, au. 

Roll, o ; remote, o ; sew, ew ; hautboy, au. 

13. in not ; a. 

Blot, o ; proxy, o ; robber, o ; what, a ; was, a. 

14. in m<we ; w. 

Prove, o; ado, o " who, o ; rule, u. 

15. £7 in tune; ew. 

Lute, u / human, u ; new, ew ; use, u ; regulate, u. 

16. Z7in run; o. 

But, u ; up, w ; sunder, u ; done, o. 

17. Urn full; o. 

Pull, w ; cushion, u ; push, u ; wolf, o. 

Oi* in boil; oy. 

Coil, of ; soil, oi ; hoy, oy ; destroy, oy. 

Ow\ in pound; ow. 

Around, ou ; thou, ou ; house, ou ; town, ow ; crowd, ow. 

§ 66. CONSONANTS. 

18. Bin but. 

Roo, b; gleoe, b; by, b; bulb, b ; imoioe, b. 

19. D in did. 

Daj,d; door, d; made, d; hard, a 7 ; deduct, d. 

, 20. JFmfate ; ph, gh. 

Full,/; scarf,/; defend,/; phantom, ph; rough, gh. 

21. Or in go ; gh. 

Give, g ; green, g ; goodness, g ; ghost, gh ; burgh, gh. 

22. Em he. 

Head, h; Aall, h; heart, h; horje,h; behold, h. 

* Composed of a in all and i in pit. 

f Composed of a in father and o in move. 



CONSONANTS. - 45 

23. Jin joy ; g, di. 

/ail,/; /est,/; jury,j; gesture, g; #iant, g; soldier, di. 

24. iT in Z00&; c, ch, q. 

Kid.,k; as&, k; kindle, k; cube, c; faction, c; cAasm, eft; 
guite, #. 

25. L in Zwe. 

iet, Z; Zaw, Z; fi/e, Z; aZso, I. 

26. ilf in raa/i. 

ikfove, m; same, m; roam,m; complain, m. 

2T. N in no. 

New, n; one, n; begin, n; complain, n. 

28. i^in bank; ng. 

Sink, n ; drink, n ; anxious, n ; son^r, ng ; brin<7, ng. 

29. P in j?mg. 

Put, p ; pe&r, j? ; reap, p ; comply, p. 

30. i£ in /we. 

jRose, r; round, r; rain, r; far, r; world, r; declare, r. 

31. $ in say ; e. 

See, s; fast, 5; mistrust, s ; cedar, c ; city, c; police, c. 

32. Tin tide; ed. 

Tree, t; tent, t; rime, *; ancient, t; mixed, cd; rocked, ed. 

33. F" in vine ; /, ph. 

Fague, v; dove, v ; live, v; remove, v; o/, /; Stephen, ph. 

34. TT in way. 

TFant, w; dwell, w ; beware, 10. 

X* in to;. 
Boa:, x ; text, x ; axle, x ; execute, x. 

Xj in eaastf. 
Example, x; exert, x; executive, x; exonerate, x. 

* Composed of h and si f Composed of g and z. 



46 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

35. Y in year; i, j. 

Ye, y ; yield, y ; youih, y ; filial, i; union, i; hallelu/ah, j. 

36. Z in zeal; s, c, x. 

Zenith, z; zealous, z; zone, z; is, s; rose, s; suffice, c; 
Xenophon, x. 

37. Z in azure ; s. 

Seizure, z; measure, s; leisure, 5; ambrosial, s. 

38. Thin this. 

They, th ; scythe, th ; thine, th ; fa$er, th. 

39. Thin thin. 

Thorn, th ; brea$, th ; truth, th ; an^em, th. 

40. Oh in church. 

Child, ch ; cAeck, ch ; touch, ch ; marcA, ch. 

41. Sh in ship; ch, ti, ci, ce, s, si. 

5Mne, sh; sAow, sh; cAaise, ch; portion, ti; social, ci; 
ocean, ce ; sure, s ; torsion, si. 



WORDS AND SYLLABLES. 

§ 67. A word is a letter or combination of letters, used 
as the sign of an idea ; as, I, man, science, extempora- 
neous. 

§ 68. A syllable is a word or a part of a word, which 
is pronounced by a single impulse of the voice ; as, art, 
ar-tic-u-la-tion. 

Most syllables are written with at least one vowel ; but in many 
words the vowel of the final syllable is silent, as in sea-son, whis-tle, 
hap-pened. 

What is a word? Examples. What is a syllable? Examples. 
Name a syllable which has no vowel sound. 



DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 47 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; one of two syl- 
lables, a dissyllable ; one of three, a trisyllable: and one of more 
than three, a polysyllable ; as, in, intend, intention, intentionally. 

§69. Words are divided into two general classes; — primitive 
and derivative. 

A primitive or radical word is one that is not derived from any 
other word or words in the language ; as, Mil, tree, kind, consider. 

A derivative word is one that is formed from some primitive word 
or words in the language ; as, hillock, kindness, inconsiderate. 

§70. Words are also divided into two other classes, called simple 
and compound. 

A simple word is one that is not formed by uniting other words ; 
as, hand, fortune. 

A compound word is one that is formed by joining two or more 
simple words, without materially modifying either ; as, book-seller^ 
rail-road, common-place book. 

Division of Words into Syllables. 

§ 71. As a general principle, it may be observed, that the sylla- 
bles of a word are those divisions which are made in a correct pro- 
nunciation of it. See § 268, Note. 

The following are perhaps the only definite rules that can be 
given on this subject : — 

1. Two consonants forming but one sound, as ng, ch, th, sh,ph, 
wh, are never separated. Thus, we write church-es, wor-thy, feath- 
er, ring-ing, a-while. 

2. Compound words are commonly separated into the simple 
words of which they are composed ; as, care-less, bee-hive, rail-road. 

3. In expressing the past tense and perfect participle of regular 
verbs, the termination ed, though not always pronounced separately, 
is regarded in writing as a distinct syllable ; as, lov-ed, burn-ed. 
See §125, Rem. 2. 



What is a word of one syllable called ? — of two ? — of three ? — of more 
than three ? Into what two general classes are words divided ? What is a 
primitive word ? Examples. A derivative word ? Examples. A simple 
word? Examples. A compound word? Examples. What are the syllables 
of a word ? What three rules are given respecting the division of words into 
syllables ? * 



48 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

SPELLING. 

§ 72. Spelling is the art of expressing words by their 
proper letters. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

I. Final consonants are generally single ; as in man, book, repeat 

Exceptions. — The final letters in add, ebb, odd, egg, err, purr, burr, 
inn, butt, and buzz, are exceptions to this rule. We must also ex- 
cept /, I, and s, when immediately preceded by a single vowel, or by 
gu or qu and a single vowel. Under these circumstances, f, and, in 
monosyllables, I and 5, are doubled, as in rebuff, call, guess, quill; ex- 
cept in as, has, was, gas, his, is, this, thus, us, yes, if, of and its com- 
pounds hereof, whereof, etc. Concerning / and s, in words of more 
than one syllable, no certain rule can be given. 

Remark 1. — C assumes k at the end of all monosyllables, except lac, 
zinc, and arc. 

Rem. 2. -<- K was formerly used after c, in many words of more than 
one syllable ; but it is now generally omitted, except in some few words, 
as attack, hillock. 

H. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y to i on 
receiving an addition,* unless this addition is 's or a syllable begin- 
ning with i; as, carry, carries, carrier ; fancy, fancied, fanciful; 
lady, lady's; carry, carrying. 

III. Words ending in y preceded by a vowel, generally retain 
the y on taking an increase ; as, boy, boys, boyish ; journey, jour- 
neys; money, moneys ; valley, valleys. 

Exc. — Paid, laid, lain, saith, said, and most of their compounds, as 
unpaid, mislaid, are exceptions to this rule. 

IV. Words ending in silent e, generally reject the e before an 

additional syllable beginning with a vowel ; as, strive, striving ; 

sense, sensible. 

Exc. 1. — Words ending in oe, retain the final e; as shoe, shoeing; hoe, 
hoeing. 

What is spelling ? What is the rule respecting final consonants ? Exam- 
ples. What is the rule respecting words ending in y preceded by a consonant ? 
What is the rule respecting words ending in y preceded by a vowel ? Exam- 
ples. What two rules are given respecting words ending in silent e ? Ex- 
amples. 

* The 2d, 4th, and 6th rules are not intended to include such additions as 
form compound words. 



SPELLING. 49 

Exc. 2. — When e is preceded by g or c, it is retained before ous and 

able ; as, courageous, peaceable. 
Exc. 3. — The e is retained in a few words to prevent ambiguity ; as 

in singeing, to distinguish it from singing ; in dyeing (coloring), to 

distinguish from dying (expiring). 
Exc. 4. — Words terminating in ee, drop the final letter only when the 

addition begins with e; as, see, seer, seeth ; fee, flees t ; agree, agreed. 
Rem. — Words ending in ie, besides dropping e, change i to y, before 
an additional syllable beginning with t; as, lie, lying. 

V. Words ending in silent e, generally retain e on receiving an 
additional syllable beginning with a consonant ; as large, largely. 

Exc. — Duly, truly, wholly, awful, and argument, are exceptions. The 
words judgment, abridgment, and acknowledgment, are also most fre- 
quently written without the e. 

Rem. — Before fy and ty, e is sometimes changed to i ; as, pure, purify, 
purity. 

VI. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, end- 
ing in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, generally 
double the final consonant on taking an additional syllable begin- 
ning with a vowel; as, tan, tanner ; fulfil, fulfilling. 

Exc. 1. — X, z, and k, are never doubled in English words ; as, wax, 
waxen. See § 50. 

Exc. 2. — When the accent is shifted, the final letter remains single ; 
as, confer, conference. Excel follows the general rule ; as in excellence. 

Exc. 3. — The derivatives of gas have only one s ; as, gases, gasify. 

Rem. 1. — When a diphthong precedes the final letter, or when the 
accent is not on the last syllable, the consonant is not doubled on assum- 
ing an additional syllable : as, boil, boiling ; visit, visitor. 

Rem. 2. — Respecting words ending in I and p, which are not accented 
on the last syllable, usage is not settled. In many words these letters are 
now generally doubled ; as, travel, traveller ; worship, worshipper. 

Rem. 3. — Many words ending in c, assume k on taking an additional 
syllable beginning with e, i, or y ; as, frolic, frolicked, frolicking. 

VII. Words ending in a double consonant, generally retain both 

consonants on receiving an addition ; as, call, calls, caller, calling. 

Exc. — Some words ending in II, drop one I on receiving an increase 
beginning with a consonant *, as, full, fulness, fully. 

VIII. Compound words are usually spelled in the same manner 

What is the rule respecting monosyllables and words accented on the last syl- 
lable, ending in a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel ? What is the 
rule respecting words ending in a double consonant ? — respecting compound 
words ? 

5 



50 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

as the simple words of which they are composed; as, here-after, 

ice-house. 

Exc. — An e is dropped in wherever ; and words ending in // often drop 
one / in composition, as aWeady, with-al, un-til. 

§ 73. E is inserted before s, in forming the plural of nouns, and the 
third person singular of verbs, ending in ch soft, sh, s, x, 2, 0, or y preceded 
by a consonant ; as, churches, wishes, hisses, flies. 

Exc. — In the following words, e is commonly omitted in the plural : — 
canto, grotto, junto, memento, portico, quarto, octavo, solo, two, zero, tyro. 

§ 74. Nouns ending in preceded by another vowel, form the plural 
by the addition of s only; as, cameo, cameos; embryo, embryos ; folio, folios ; 
bamboo, bamboos. 

§ 75. Many words in our language admit of two or more different 
modes of spelling ; as, connection, connexion ; chemistry, chymistry, chimistry ; 
octahedron, octaedron, octohedron, octoedron. In such cases, the prevailing 
usage is to be learned by observing the practice of the standard authors 
of the present day, and by consulting the best dictionaries. 

§ 76. In some kinds of writing, such as bills and inscriptions, symbols 
are often used to represent either whole words or parts of word ; as XII, 
18, 29^, etc. But in literary compositions, elegant usage generally re- 
jects these, except in giving dates, and the several divisions of a subject. 

Various other marks are employed in writing, which will be described 
under the head of Punctuation. 



PART II. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 77. Etymology treats of the classification of words, 
their derivation, and their various modifications. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

§ 78. The different classes into which words are divided 
are called Parts of Speech. 

There are in English eight* parts of speech ; namely, 
the Noun, the Adjective,^ the Pronoun, the Verb, the 
Adverb, the Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Inter- 
jection. 

A Noun is a word used to express the name of an ob- 
ject ; as, America, man, book, wisdom. 

An Adjective is a word joined to a noun or pronoun, to 
qualify or define its meaning ; as, honest men ; ten days ; 
this book. 

A Pronoun is a word used to supply the place of a 

Of what does Etymology treat ? What are the different classes of 
words called 1 Enumerate the parts of speech. What is a noun ? Ex- 
amples. An adjective ? Examples. A pronoun 1 Examples. 

*"I adopt the usual distribution of words into eight classes, because, if 
any number, in a thing so arbitrary, must be fixed upon, this seems to be 
as comprehensive and distinct as any." — Priestley. 

The division of words into eight classes is also adopted by Butler, Frazee, 
Swett, Fowle, E. Oliver, Lindsay, Hort, M'Culloch, Connon, D'Orsey, Wil- 
lard, Bobbins, S. Barrett, Badgley, Day, Whiting, Weld, and others. 

f For note respecting the articles, see p. 69. 



52 ETYMOLOGY. 

noun ; as, " When Caesar had conquered Gaul, he turned 
his arms against his country." 

A Verb is a word that expresses an assertion or affir- 
mation; as, I am; I love; I am loved. 

An Adverb is a word used to modify the sense of a 
verb, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, " He is not 
understood ; " — "A remarkably diligent boy ; " — " She 
reads very correctly" 

A Preposition is a word used to express the relation 
of a noun or pronoun depending upon it, to some other 
word in the sentence ; as, " He went from Boston to Al- 
bany ; " — " Washington was the father of his country." 

A Conjunction is a word that is used to connect words 
or sentences ; as, " Seven and five are twelve ; " — 
" Straws swim on the surface ; but pearls lie at the bot- 
tom." 

An Interjection is an exclamatory word, used merely to 
express some passion or emotion ; as, Oh ! ah ! alas ! 



THE NOUN. 

§ 79. A Noun* is a word used to express the name of 
an object ; as, America, man, booh, wisdom. 

This part of speech not only embraces the names of 
material objects, as horse, tree, carriage; but it also in- 
cludes the name of every thing that can be conceived to 
exist, as hope, virtue, strength. 

What is a verb % Examples. An adverb ? Examples. A preposi- 
tion 1 Examples. A conjunction 1 Examples. An interjection ? Ex- 
amples. What is a noun ? Examples. What names, besides those of 
material objects, are embraced under this part of speech % Examples. 

* Noun is derived from the Latin word nomen, which signifies a name. 



NOUNS. 53 

§ 80. Nouns are of two kinds; — proper and common. 

1. A. proper noun is a name used to distinguish an in- 
dividual object from others of the same class ; as, George, 
Boston, Ontario, Vesuvius, January. 

Rem. — The particular names of nations, ranges of mountains, 
and groups of islands, are generally classed with proper nouns ; as, 
The Jews, The Andes, The Azores. 

Observation. — The pupil should be careful to discriminate 
between a proper name used to distinguish an individual object, 
and the same word used to denote a class or species. Thus, when 
we say, " The Prussians are distinguished for their system of free 
schools," Prussians is a proper noun, because it is used to distin- 
guish a particular nation from all other nations ; but, in the sen- 
tence, " I saw several Prussians in Paris," the word Prussians be- 
comes a common noun, because it may be applied in the same sense 
to any other portion of the whole class of individuals composing the 
kingdom of Prussia. So also in the expression, " He is the Cicero 
of his age," the word Cicero is employed to denote a class, and is 
applicable in this sense to other individuals in common with the 
celebrated Roman orator. 

2. A common noun is a name that may be applied to 
any one of a whole class of objects ; as, desk, house, toivn, 
scholar. 

§ 81. Common nouns embrace also the particular classes, termed 
abstract, participial, and collective. 

1. An abstract noun is the name of a quality considered apart 
from the object to which it belongs ; as, hardness, strength, wisdom, 
benevolence. Thus, in the phrase, beautiful flower, the quality de- 
noted by the word beautiful, when considered as separated from the 
object flower, is expressed by the abstract noun beauty. 

Into what classes are nouns divided ? What is a proper noun % Ex- 
amples. What of the particular names of nations, groups of islands, etc. ? 
Examples. Show haw the same word may be either a proper or a common 
noun. Examples. What is a common noun 1 Examples. What par- 
ticular classes are embraced under common nouns 9 What is an abstract noun ? 
Illustrate. Examples. -^ 



54 ETYMOLOGY. 

2. A participial noun is a word that has the form of a participle, 
and performs the office of a noun ; as, " They could not avoid sub- 
mitting to this influence." 

Rem. — There are a few words ending in ing, as morning, evening, which 
are not embraced in this class, since they are not derived from verbs. 

3. A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is a name that denotes 
a collection of many individuals ; as, school, flock, people, assembly. 

EXERCISES. 

§ 82. Ship, London, army, Alps, virtue, industry, Pales- 
tine, mountain, field, pleasure, France, assembly. 

Which of the foregoing nouns are common ? Which proper ? Which 
abstract ? Which collective ? 

" Paris is the metropolis of France." — " In the days of 
youth, the multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their chief 
good." — " Industry is the law of our being. It is the de- 
mand of nature, of reason, and of God." — " This was said 
in the hearing of the witness. 

Mention the nouns in the foregoing sentences. Which are common ? 
Which proper 1 Which are abstract ? Which participial ? Which collec- 
tive ? 

Write a sentence containing both a common and a proper noun. One 
containing an abstract noun ; — a participial noun ; — a collective noun. 

PROPERTIES. 

§ 83. The properties belonging to nouns are gender, 
person, number, and case. 

GENDER. 

§ 84. Gender is the distinction of objects in regard to sex. 
There are four * genders ; — the masculine, the femi- 
nine, the common, and the neuter. 

What is a participial noun ? Examples. What is a collective noun ? 
Examples. What properties have nouns ? What is gender % What are 
the different genders ? 

* Since there are but two sexes, some critics have contended that we 



NOUNS. 55 

1. Nouns that denote males, are of the masculine gen- 
der; as, man, brother, king, father. 

2. Nouns that denote females, are of the fe?flinine gen- 
der ; as, woman, sister, queen, mother. 

3. Nouns that are applicable alike to both sexes, are of 
the common gender; as, parent, child, friend. 

4. Nouns that denote objects neither male nor female, 
are of the neuter gender ; as, rock, wind, paper, knotvledge. 

Rem. 1 . — Nouns of the masculine or feminine gender are frequently 
used in a general sense, including both sexes ; as, " And with thee will I 
break in pieces the horse and his rider." — Jer. 51 : 21. " Go to the ant, 
thou sluggard ; consider her ways, and be wise." — Prov. 6 : 6. 

Rem. 2. — When we speak of males and females of our own species 
without regard to sex, we generally employ a term in the masculine gen- 
der ; as, " Man is mortal ; " — " The authors and poets of the age." 

Rem. 3. — In speaking of young children, and of animate objects 
whose sex is unknown, we often employ the neuter pronoun it ; as, " The 
child was well when I saw it ;" — "He caught the bird, but it soon es- 
caped from him." 

Rem. 4. — In the English language, the gender of nouns follows the 
order of nature ; but in the Greek, Latin, and German tongues, the gram- 
matical genders are frequently assigned without regard to sex ; while 
in the French, Italian, etc., which have no neuter gender, every object is, 
of necessity, regarded as grammatically masculine or feminine. 

Rem. 5. — By a figure of speech called Personification, gender is 
sometimes attributed to objects without sex. Thus, the sun, time, death, 
etc., are usually considered as masculine ; and the earth, a ship, virtue, etc., 
are commonly characterized as feminine. 

Obs. 1. — This figurative mode of expression, by which we give life 

What nouns are of the masculine gender? Examples. What of the 
feminine 1 Examples. What of the common 1 Examples. What of 
the neuter ? Examples. 

have properly no more than two genders. This reasoning would be satis- 
factory if the word gender were synonymous with sex ; but the best gram- 
marians have uniformly employed it in a less restricted sense, to express 
*' distinction in regard to sex." As some names denote males, some fe- 
males, some objects of either sex, and some objects of no sex, it is ob- 
vious that, in regard to sex, there must be four distinct classes of nouns. 
In designating these classes, grammarians have found it convenient to 
employ the terms masculine, feminine, common, and neuter gender. See 
Frazee, Goldsbury, Hall, R. C. Smith, Parker and Fox, Pickett, Good- 
enow, Fowle, Parkhurst, Sanborn, Willard, Webber, Perley, Felch, Bar- 
rett, C. Adams, Cooper, Granville, Beall, Booth, Crane, Maittaire, Pinnock, 
Smart, Sutcliffe, and De Sacy. 



56 



ETYMOLOGY. 



and sex to things inanimate, contributes greatly to the force and beauty 
of our language, and renders it, in this respect, superior to the polished 
languages of Greece and Rome. 

Obs. 2. — No fixed rule can be given to determine, in all cases, which 
gender should be assigned to inanimate objects personified. Those which 
are distinguished for masculine qualities, as energy, boldness, or strength, 
are generally regarded as masculine ; and those which are distinguished 
for feminine qualities, as beauty, mildness, or timidity, are generally 
characterized as feminine. Abstract nouns, and the names of ships, cities, 
and countries, are usually considered as feminine. 

Examples: — " They arrived too late to save the ship; for the violent 

current had set her more and more upon the bank." — Irving. 
" Statesmen scoffed at Virtue, and she avenged herself by bringing 

their counsels to nought." — Bancroft. 
"Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God." — Coleridge. 
" Where rolls the Oregon, and hears no sound, 
Save his own dashings." — Bryant. 
" The oak 
Shall send his roots abroad and pierce thy mould." — Ibid. 
" And see where surly Winter passes off, 
Ear to the north, and calls his ruffian blasts." — Thomson. 

§ 85. The distinction between males and females is expressed in 
three different ways. 

1. By the use of different words : — 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine, 


Feminine. 


Beau 


belle 


Lad 


lass 


Boy 


girl 


Landlord 


landlady 


Brother 


sister 


Lord 


lady 


Buck 


doe 


Male 


female 


Drake 


duck 


Man 


woman 


Earl 


countess 


Master 


mistress 


Eather 


mother 


Master 


miss 


Eriar or monk 


nun 


Nephew 


niece 


Gander 


goose 


Papa 


mamma 


Gentleman 


lady 


Son 


daughter 


Hart 


roe 


Stag 


hind 


Horse 


mare 


Uncle 


aunt 


Husband 


wife 


Wizard 


witch 


King 


queen 








2. By a difference of termination 




Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Abbot 


abbess 


Adulterer 


adulteress 


Actor 


actress 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Administrator 


administratrix 


Arbiter 


arbitress 



In what three ways is the distinction between males and females expressed ? 
Examples of each. 







NOUNS. 


57 


Author 


authoress 


Landgrave 


landgravine 


Baron 


baroness 


Lion 


lioness 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Margrave 


margravine 


Caterer 


cateress 


Negro 


negress 


Chanter 


chantress 


Patron 


patroness 


Conductor 


conductress 


Peer 


peeress 


Count 


countess 


Poet 


poetess 


Czar 


czarina 


Prior 


prioress 


Dauphin 


dauphiness 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Protector 


protectress 


Don 


donna 


Priest 


priestess 


Duke 


duchess 


Prince 


princess 


Emperor 


empress 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Songster 


songstress 


Executor 


executrix 


Sorcerer 


sorceress [tana 


Giant 


giantess 


Sultan 


sultaness or sul- 


Governor 


governess 


Tailor 


tailoress 


Heir 


heiress 


Testator 


testatrix 


Hero 


heroine 


Tiger 


tigress 


Hunter 


huntress 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Host 


hostess 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Instructor 


instructress 


Votary 


votaress 


Jew 


Jewess 


Widower 


widow 



3. By prefixing another word : — 

Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine. 

iWaw-servant manservant ZZe-goat she-goat 

Male-child female-child 

Some words are used only in the feminine ; as, Amazon, brunette, dow- 
ager, shrew, syren, virago. 

PERSON. 

§ 86. Person is that property of nouns and pronouns 
which distinguishes the speaker, the person or thing ad- 
dressed, and the person or thing spoken of. 

Nouns have three persons ; — the first, the second, 
and the third. 

1. The first person denotes the speaker; as, "The sal- 
utation of me, Paul, with mine own hand." 

2. The second person denotes the person or thing spoken 

What is person ? Name the persons. What does the first person 
denote ? Examples. The second ? Examples. 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 

to ; as, " These are thy glorious works, Parent of good ;" 
" Come, gentle Spring" 

3. The third person denotes the person or thing spoken 
of; as, " Dependence and obedience belong to youth" 

Rem. — The third person is occasionally employed for the first or sec- 
ond. Thus, Solomon, addressing the Deity, says of himself, " Thy ser- 
vant is in the midst of thy people, which thou hast chosen." So also, 
Moses, in narrating the events of his own life, speaks of himself just as 
he would speak of any other person. In the following example, the third 
person is employed for the second : — " And Jonathan spake good of Da- 
vid unto Saul his father, and said unto him, Let not the king sin against 
his servant, against David." 



EXERCISES. 

§ 87. Mention the gender of each of the following nouns : — 

Bell, uncle, cherry, girl, neighbor, sister, tree, rose, grass. 

Mention three nouns in the masculine gender; — three in the femi- 
nine; — three in the common; — three in the neuter. Give an example 
of a noun in the first person ; — in the second ; — in the third. 

Write a sentence containing a noun in the masculine gender ; — in the 
feminine ; — in the common ; — in the neuter. One containing a noun in 
the first person ; — in the second ; — in the third. 



NUMBER. 

§ 88. Number is the distinction of one from more than 
one. 

Nouns have two numbers; — the singular and the 
plural. 

1. The singular number denotes but one object; as, 
day, booh, volume. * 

2. The plural number denotes more objects than one ; 
as, days, boohs, volumes. 

What does the third person denote 1 Examples. What is number ? 
What numbers have nouns ? What does the singular number denote ? 
Examples. What does the plural number denote ? Examples. 



NOUNS. 59 

§ 89. The plural of nouns is generally formed by adding s or es 
to the singular. 

1. Words ending in a sound which will unite with the sound of 
s, form the plural by adding s only ; as, her d, herds ; tree, trees. 

2. Words ending in a sound which will not unite with the sound 
of s, form the plural by adding es : as, fox, foxes ; lash, lashes. 
See § 73. 

Rem. 1. — But words ending in silent e, whose last sound will not com- 
bine with the sound of s, add s only for the plural ; as, rose, roses ; voice, 
voices. 

Rem. 2. — Most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, form the 
plural by the addition of es ; as, cargo, cargoes ; hero, heroes ; but the fol- 
lowing nouns are commonly written in the plural with s only : — canto, 
grotto, junto, memento, portico, quarto, octavo, solo, two, tyro, zero. There 
are also a few others, with respect to which, usage is not uniform. 

Rem. 3. — Several nouns ending in fovfe, form the plural by substi- 
tuting ves, for the termination in the singular ; as, loaf, loaves ; life, lives ; 
beef, beeves ; shelf, shelves ; knife, knives. Others, as chief, dwarf fife, grief 
gulf handkerchief, hoof, proof, roof, reproof, safe, scarf strife, surf turf, and 
most of those ending in ff form the plural regularly; as, gulf gulfs; 
muff, muffs. Staff has staves in the plural, but its compounds are regu- 
lar ; as, flagstaff, flagstaff's. 

Rem. 4. — Nouns ending in y after a consonant, form the plural by 
changing y to ies ; as, lady, ladies. But nouns ending in y after a vowel, 
form the plural regularly ; as, day, days. t 

Obs. — Many words ending in y were formerly spelled with ie in the 
singular ; as, glorie, vanitie. The termination ie, in the singular, is now 
laid aside for y, while the old plural termination ies, is retained ; as, glory, 
glories ; vanity, vanities. 

Rem. 5. — The plurals of the following nouns are variously 
formed : — man, men ; woman, women ; child, children ; ox, oxen ; 
mouse, mice ; tooth, teeth ; goose, geese ; foot, feet ; brother, brothers 
(when applied to persons of the same family) ; brother, brethren 
(when applied to persons of the same society or profession) ; die, 
dies (stamps for coining) ; die, dice (small cubes for gaming) ; ge- 
nius, genii (aerial spirits) ; genius, geniuses (men of genius) ; pea, 
pease (the species) ; pea, peas (the seeds as distinct objects) ; pen- 
ny, pence (in computation) ; penny, pennies (as distinct species of 
coin). 

How is the plural of nouns generally formed ? What words form the plural 
by adding s only f Examples. What words by adding es 1 Examples. 
Give the plural of the following nouns : — Man, woman, child, ox, mouth, tooth, 
goose, foot,' brother, die, genius, pea, penny. 



60 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Rem. 6. — Spoonful, mouse-trap, camera-obscura, Ave- Maria, and other 
similar compound nouns, form the plural regularly ; as, spoonfuls, mouse- 
traps, earner a-obscur as, Ave Marias. But words composed of an adjective 
and a noun, or of two nouns connected by a preposition, generally form 
the plural by adding s to the first word; as, court-martial, courts-martial; 
knight-errant, knights- err ant ; aid-de-camp, aids-de-camp; cousin-german, 
cousins-german ; son-in-law, sons-in-law. 

Examples : — " Those who are carried down in coachfuls to Westmin- 
ster-Hall." — Addison. " Captains Orme and Morris, the two oth- 
er aids-de-camp, were wounded and disabled." — Sparks. "The 
lunacy as to knights-errant remaining unabated." — Hallam. 

Rem. 7. — Letters and numeral figures generally form the plural 
by adding an apostrophe with the letter s ; as, Twelve a's ; three 
5*5. The plural of words, considered as words merely, is formed in 
the same manner. 

.Examples : — "I busied myself in crossing my fs and dotting my i's 
very industriously." — Willis. "The dividend contains two x's, 
two y's, and two s's." — Young's Algebra. " Cast all the 9's out of 
the sum of the figures in each of the two factors." — Hutton's 
Mathematics. " Who, that has any taste, can endure the incessant, 
quick returns of the alsds, and the likewise^, and the moreover^, 
and the however 's, and the notwithstanding^ ?" — CampbeWs Phil, 
of Met. 
Rem. 8. — Many nouns adopted from foreign languages, retain their 
original plurals : — 



Alumnus 

Amanuensis 

Analysis 

Animalculum 

Animalcule (Eng.) $ 

Antithesis antitheses 



alumni 

amanuenses 

analyses 

*t animalcula^ 



Apex 

Appendix 

Arcanum 

Automaton 

Axis 

Bandit 

Basis 



{apices 
apexes 
( appendices 
( appendixes 
arcana 
automata 



! 



automatons 

axes 

banditti 



I bandits 
bases 



Beau 
Calx 

Cherub 

Chrysalis 
Crisis 

Criterion 

Datum 

Desideratum 

Diaeresis 

Dogma 

Effluvium 

Ellipsis 

Emphasis 



beaux 
( calces 
( calxes 

{cherubim 
cherubs 
chrysalides 
crises 
( criteria 
{ criterions 
data 

desiderata 
diaereses 
( dogmas 
( dogmata 
effluvia 
ellipses • 
emphases 



What rule is observed in forming the plural of letters, numerical figures, 
and words considered merely as words ? Examples. 



* " Animalcule is a barbarism." — Smart, adopted by Worcester. 



NOUNS. 



61 



Encomium 

Ephemeris 

Erratum 

Focus 

Formula 

Fungus 

Genus 

Gymnasium 

Hypothesis 
Ignis fatuus 
Index 



Index 



Lamina 
Larva 

Medium 



(.encomiums Memorandum i me ™ r anda 

I encomia ( memorandums 

ephemerides Metamorphosis metamorphoses 

errata Miasma miasmata 

foci tit i. ( momenta 

(formulas Momentum | momentums 

( formula? Monsieur messieurs 

{fungi Nebula nebulae 

funguses Oasis oases 

genera Parenthesis parentheses 

( gymnasia Phasis phases 

( gymnasiums Phenomenon phenomena 

hypotheses Radius radii 

ignes fatui Scoria scoriae 

indices (refer- c , ,. ( scholia 

ringtoalge- Scholium j scho liums 

braic quanti- c , ( seraphim 

ties) Sera P h | seraphs 

indexes (point- Speculum specula 

ers, or tables g (stamens 

of contents) { stamina 

laminae Stimulus stimuli 

larvae Stratum strata 

( media Thesis theses 

I mediums Vortex vortices 

Rem. 9. — Some nouns have the same form in both numbers 5 as, deer, 
sheep, swine, trout, salmon, congeries, series, species, means, odds, bellows ; eth- 
ics, mathematics, metaphysics, pneumatics, optics, and other similar names 
of sciences. 

Rem. 10. — There are also several nouns of number, which do not 
commonly vary their forms in the plural ; as, " Six dozen ; " " Three score 
and ten." 

Rem. 11. — The words horse, foot, and infantry, denoting bodies of sol- 
diers, are singular in form, but plural in signification. Cavalry is often 
used in the same manner. The words cannon, sail, and head, are also 
frequently employed in a plural sense. 

Examples : — " Nelson now proceeded to his station with eight sail 
of frigates under his command." — Southey. " A body of a thou- 
sand horse was sent forward to reconnoitre the city." — Prescott. 
" He ordered two cannon to be fired." — Irving. 

Rem. 12. — The following words, though sometimes used as singular 
nouns, are more properly plural : — alms, amends, pains, riches, wages* 

Rem. 13. — The following are used only in the plural: — 



Manners 

Minutiae 

Morals 

Nippers 

Nones 

Orgies 

Pincers 



Annals 


Calends 


Goods 


Archives 


Clothes 


Hatches 


Ashes 


Drawers (an ar- 


Hose (stockings) 


Assets 


ticle of dress) 


Hysterics 


Billiards 


Dregs 


Ides 


Bitters 


Embers 


Lees 


Bowels 


Entrails 


Letters (literature) 


Breeches 


Exuviae 


Literati 



62 ETYMOLOGY. 

Pleiads Shears Thanks Vespers 

Politics Snuffers Tidings Victuals 

Scissors Statistics Tongs Vitals 
Shambles 

Rem. 14. — Nouns denoting objects which do not admit of plurality, 
are used only in the singular ; as, gold, silver, wheat, molasses, wine, flour, 
industry, pride, wisdom. 

Obs. — When, however, different hinds or varieties are spoken of, words 
of this class sometimes take the plural form ; as, " The teas of China." — 
" He also acquired a lucrative monopoly of wines.'' 1 — Bancroft. In these 
examples, the different species or classes are signified, and not a number 
of individual objects of the same class. 

Rem. 15. — The word news is now regarded as singular, though it was 
formerly used in both numbers. Shakspeare has it most frequently in 
the plural. 

Rem. 16. — Proper names are sometimes pluralized like other 
nouns ; as, The two Scipios, The Howards, The Johnsons ; but these 
plural names are not used to designate individuals, and may with 
more propriety be classed with common nouns. 

Rem. 17. — Proper names ending in y preceded by a consonant, 
are sometimes pluralized by adding s to the singular, as The Hen- 
ry s. The Ptolemy s ; but the regular form, as The Henries, The 
Ptolemies, is to be preferred. Proper names ending in o preceded 
by a consonant, are most frequently pluralized by adding s to the 
singular; as, The Catos, The Ciceros. 

Rem. 18. — In expressing the plural of a proper name and a 
title, taken as one complex noun, good writers most frequently an- 
nex the plural termination to the title only ; as, " The Misses 
Smith." This form is therefore to be preferred.* 

Examples : — " The Misses Barrett." — Graham } s Magazine. " The 
Misses Vanhomrigh." — Edinb. Journal. " The Misses Wood." — 
Boston Courier. " The Misses Fellows." — H. Winslow. " The 
Messrs. Carey." — J G. Palfrey. " The Messrs. Abbott." — Judge 
Hubbard. " The Messrs. Harper." — N. A. Review. " Messrs. 
Percy." — Southey. " The celebrated Misses Davidson." — R. W. 
Griswold. 



What of proper names, pluralized? How do writers most frequently form 
the plural of a proper name and a title, taken as a complex noun ? Examples. 

* In forming the plural of proper names to which titles are prefixed, 
usage is still unsettled. While a decided majority of our popular writers 
pluralize the title and not the name, as " The Misses Smith," there is also 



NOUNS. 63 

Rem. 19. — The proper names of nations, societies, groups of islands, 
and chains of mountains, are generally plural ; as, The French, The Mora- 
vians, The Azores, The Alps, The Andes. 

EXERCISES. 

§ 90. Give the number of each of the following nouns : — 

Cloud, vices, knives, life, lyceum, mirth, men, feet, brother. 

Give the plural of the following nouns : — 

Month, lion, church, poet, woman, thought. 

Give the number of the following nouns : — 

Oxen, brethren, die, cherubim, data, hypotheses, beaux, 
analysis, series, means, mathematics, alms, wages, ashes, 
scissors. 

Give the plural of the following nouns : — 

Penny, pailful, father-in-law, amanuensis, focus, stratum, 
erratum, genus, phenomenon. 

Write a sentence containing two or more nouns in the singular num- 
ber; one containing two or more nouns in the plural. 

CASE. 

§ 91. Case denotes the relation of nouns and pronouns 
to other words. 

Nouns have four cases ; — the nominative, the posses- 
sive, the objective, and the independent* 

What is case 1 What cases have nouns ? 

a large class of writers equally reputable, that pluralize the name and not 
the title, as " The Miss Smiths: 1 

Examples: — "The Miss Byleses." — Miss Leslie, "The Miss Hor- 
neclcs." — Irving. " The two Miss Flamboroughs." — Goldsmith. 

Besides the two forms already exhibited, there is still another, in which 
the plural termination is annexed to both the name and the title ; as, " The 
Misses Smiths." This form, though not very common, is occasionally em- 
ployed by the best writers. 

Examples: — " The Messrs. Harpers." — JV. A. Review. " The Misses 

Mores." — B. B. Edwards. "The two Misses Beauvoirs." — Black- 

wood's Magazine. 

* The nominative case is defined by the best grammarians, to be " that 

form or state of a noun or pronoun which denotes the subject of a verb ; " 

and since a noun or pronoun, used independently, cannot at the same time 



64 ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 92. The, nominative case denotes the subject of a 

finite verb ;' as, " Birds % ; " — " Life is short." 

All parts of the verb are called finite, except the infinitive and the par- 
ticiple. 

§ 93. The possessive case denotes ownership or posses- 
sion; as, " John's book ; " — " The sun's rays." 

§ 94. The possessive singular of nouns is generally 
formed by adding an apostrophe, with the letter 8, to the 
nominative; as, nom. man; poss. man's. 

Eem. 1. — The possessive of singular nouns ending in the sound 
of 5 or z, is sometimes formed by adding only the apostrophe ; as, 
" Achilles' shield." In poetry, this omission of the apostrophic 5 is 
fully sanctioned by usage ; though the regular form is also fre- 
quently employed. In prose writings, the s may be omitted when 
its use would occasion a disagreeable succession of hissing sounds. 
Examples : ■— " But we are Moses' disciples."— John 9 : 28. 
" Achilles' shield his ample shoulders spread, 

Achilles' helmet nodded o'er his head." — Pope. 
" A train of heroes followed through the field, 

Who bore by turns great Ajax' seven-fold shield."— Ibid. 
" As for Tibullus's reports, 
They never passed for law in courts." — Swift. 
Obs. — The learner will observe that in pronouncing the word Moses's, 
with the additional s, the sound of z occurs three times in immediate suc- 
cession ; while in such expressions as " Davies's Surveying," the sound 
of z occurs only twice, the third s retaining its proper sound. 

Eem. 2. — When the use of the additional 5 does not occasion an 

What does the nominative case denote % Examples. The possessive ? 
Examples. How is the possessive singular generally formed ? Examples. 
Under what circumstances is the additional s omitted ? Examples. 

be employed as " the subject of a verb," there is a manifest impropriety in 
regarding it as a nominative. 

1 Is there not as much difference between the nominative and independent 
case, as there is between the nominative and objective ? If so, why class 
them together as one case ?"—S. R. Hall. 

" Nouns have four cases ; — the nominative, possessive, objective, and in- 
depetident." — Felton. 

So also Kennion, Parkhurst, Fowle, J. Flint, Goodenow, Bucke, Hazen, 
Goldsbury, Peirce, Chapin, S. Alexander, P. Smith, and Weld. 



NOUNS. 



65 



unpleasant succession of hissing sounds, the regular form is gen- 
erally to be preferred.* 

Examples: — " Mrs. Remans 1 s fine lines on the death of Fergus." — 
N. A. Review. " Collins 's Odes. 15 — Southey. " The character of 
Douglas's original poetry." — Hallam. " The original remained 
in manuscript until Sands' s writings were collected." — R. W. 
Griswold. ''Edwards's work on the Will." — Charming. "Ste- 
phens's Incidents of Travel." — N. A. Review. " Erasmus's Dia- 
logues." — Macaulay. " Sandys 1 s Sermons." — Hallam. 
Obs. — In some expressions of frequent occurrence, usage has 
decided in favor of rejecting the additional s, contrary to the gen- 
eral rule. Thus, we say, " For conscience 9 sake," and not " For 
conscience's sake." 

Ejem. 3. — Plural nouns ending in s, form the possessive by add- 
ing an apostrophe only ; as, nom. fathers ; poss. fathers'. 

Rem. 4. — Plural nouns that do not end in s, form the possessive 
by adding both the apostrophe and s ; as, nom. men ; poss. men's. 

Rem. 5. — The import of the possessive may, in general, he expressed 
by the preposition of. Thus, for " Man's wisdom," we may say, " The 
wisdom of man." 

Rem. 6. — The sign 's is a contraction of es or is. Thus, man's, king's, 
were formerly written mannas, hinges.^ 



How 



How do plural nouns ending in s, form the possessive ? Examples, 
do plural nouns that do not end in s, form the possessive ? Examples. 

* With respect to the manner of forming the possessive of singular nouns 
ending in s, the usage of good writers is, to a considerable extent, divided. 
In a collection of nearly a thousand examples, from the productions of sev- 
eral hundred different authors, about two thirds of the number retain the 
additional s, while the rest reject it. The rule given above has, therefore, 
for its support, a decided preponderance of reputable usage. It may, how- 
ever, be remarked, that the apostrophic s is- at present more frequently 
omitted than formerly ; and it is not improbable, that in the course of 
another century, usage may require the rejection of the s altogether, after 
words ending in the sound of s or z. 

f Several respectable authors and critics have fallen into the error of 
regarding this possessive termination as a contraction of the pronoun his. 
" The same single letter (5) on many occasions, does the office of a whole 
word, and represents the his or her of our forefathers." — Addison. 

It is true that the word his was frequently written after words to form the 
possessive, by Spencer, Dryden, Pope, and other popular authors, during a 
period of two or three centuries, as, " Christ his sake," " Socrates his 
rules ; " but the present contracted form of the possessive was in use still 
earlier, and our ablest philologists have uniformly referred its origin to the 
old Saxon termination. 

" From the introduction of the Saxons into this island, to the Norman 



66 ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 95. The objective case denotes the object of a transi- 
tive verb or a preposition; as, " Boys love play ; " — 
"The queen of England" 

§ 96. The independent case denotes that the noun or 
pronoun is used absolutely, having no dependence on any 
other word ; as, " Your fathers* where are they ? " ■ — 
" The treaty being concluded, the council was dissolved ; " 
— -"There is no terror, Cassius, in your threats;" — 
M Webster's Dictionary ;" — " Liberty ! Freedom ! Ty- 
ranny is dead ! " 

Rem. — The nominative, objective, and independent cases of nouns are 
the same in form, being distinguished only by their relation to other words. 
Norn. Obj, Norn. Obj. 

John struck James. James struck John. 

Here the meaning is reversed by the interchange of the nouns ; the 
nominative or agent being indicated by its preceding the verb, and the ob- 
ject of the action by its following the verb. A noun in the independent 
case is distinguished by its denoting neither subject, object, nor possessor. 

DECLENSION. 

§ 17. To decline a noun, is to express its cases and numbers. 
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Father fathers Man men 

Poss. Father's fathers' Man's men's 

Obj. Father fathers Man men 

Ind. Father fathers Man men 

What does the objective case denote ? Examples. What does the 
independent case denote 1 Examples. What is it to decline a noun ? 

conquest, the Saxon genitive was in universal use. From the latter period 
to the time of Henry II. (1170), though the English language underwent 
some alterations, we still find the Saxon genitive. In Gavin Douglass, who 
lived in the beginning of the sixteenth century, we find is instead of es y 
thus, faderis hands. In the time of Henry the Eighth, we find, in the works 
of Sir T. More, both the Saxon and the' English genitive ; and in a letter 
written in 1559, by Maitland of Lethington, the English genitive frequently 
occurs. Had this genitive, then, been an abbreviation for the noun and the 
pronoun his, the use of the words separately would have preceded their ab- 
breviated form in composition. This, however, was not the case." — Crombie. 

See also Wallis's Grammatica Linguae Anglicanss, Hickes's Thesaurus, 
Brightland, Fisher, British Grammar, Fenning, Lowth, Priestley, Ash, Brit- 
tain, Grant, Sutcliffe, Latham, Johnson, and Webster. 

* For a particular description of the different classes of words in the in- 
dependent case, see the Remark under the 4th Rule of Syntax. 



ADJECTIVES. * 67 

Rem. — " Susan used Eliza's book." Susan is here the subject of the 
verb, and is therefore in the nominative case; Eliza's is in the possessive 
case,' because it denotes the owner of the book ; book is the object of the 
action expressed by the verb used, and is therefore in the objective case. 

EXERCISES. 

§ 98. " Romulus founded the city of Rome." — " The 
king's heart is in the hand of the Lord." — " The prophets, 
do they live forever ? " — "A wise man's anger is of short 
continuance." — " Genius lies buried on our mountains and 
in our valleys." — " Columns, arches, pyramids, — what are 
they but heaps of sand ? " — " As virtue is its own reward, so 
vice is its own punishment." — " Venerable men ! you have 
come down to us from a former generation." 

Point out the nouns in the foregoing sentences, and give the case of 
each, with the reason. Give also the gender, person, and number of each, 
with the reasons. 

Write the possessive singular and the possessive plural of the following nouns : 

Man, child, body, day, needle. 

Write one or more sentences, containing examples of nouns in all the 
different cases. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

§ 99. An Adjective* is a word joined to a noun or pro- 
noun, to qualify or define its meaning ; as, honest men ; 
ten days ; this book. 

§ 100. Adjectives may be classed under two general 
divisions ; — descriptive and definitive.^ 

What is an adjective 1 Examples. What are the principal classes of 
adjectives ? 

* The term adjective is derived from the Latin word adjectus, which sig- 
nifies added to. 

t " Adjectives are of two kinds, defining and describing adjectives.'' — 
Cardell. See also Butler, E. W. Green, and Goodenow. 



68 ETYMOLOGY. 

1. A descriptive adjective is one that expresses some 
quality or property of the noun or pronoun to which it be- 
longs ; as, a dutiful child ; a faithful friend; large trees. 

2. A definitive adjective is one that defines or limits the 
meaning of the noun or pronoun to which it belongs ; as, 
three days ; these books ; the* lesson ; all men. 

§ 101 . These two general classes of adjectives may also be divided 
into several others, of which the following are the most important : — 

1. A proper adjective is one that is derived from a proper name ; 
as, American, Ciceronian. 

2. A numeral adjective is one that is used to express number ; 

as, one, two, three ; first, second, third. 

One, two, three, etc., are also denominated cardinal adjectives ; &nd Jii'st, 
second, third, etc., ordinal adjectives. 

3. A pronominal adjective is a word that partakes of the nature 
of the pronoun and the adjective. 

Rem. 1. — When used to define a noun expressed, it is parsed as 
an adjective ; but when employed as a substitute for a word or 
phrase, it is parsed as a pronoun. Thus, in the sentence, " Some 
cried one thing, and some another," one is to be regarded as an ad- 
jective ; but, in the expression, " Every one has his peculiar trials," 
one performs the office of a pronoun or substitute. 

Rem. 2. — The principal pronominal adjectives are each, every, 
either, neither, this, that, these, those, all, any, one, other, another, 
none, some, such, same, both, several, few, much, many. 
* Rem. 3. — Each, every, either, and neither, are called distribu- 
tives, because they denote the persons or things that make up a 
number, considered separately ; as, " Each man in his order." 

What is a descriptive adjective ? Examples. What is a definitive 
adjective 1 Examples. Into what other classes are adjectives divided ? 
What is a proper adjective ? Examples. A numeral adjective ? Examples. 
A pronominal adjective ? When is a pronominal adjective paired as an ad- 
jective, and wlien as a pronoun ? Illustrate. What are some of the principal 
pronominal adjectives ? Which of the pronominal adjectives are called dis- 
tributives, and why ? 

* See note respecting the articles, p. 69^ 



ADJECTIVES. 69 

Rem. 4. — This, that, these, and those, are called demonstratives, 
because they point out precisely the objects to which they refer. 

Rem. 5. — Both denotes two objects taken together. Another is com- 
posed of an and other. None is used in both numbers. 
Rem. 6. — Other is thus declined : — 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Other others 

Poss. Other's others' 

Ooj. Other others 

Ind. Other others 

Rem. 7. — Another and one are also declined, but another is used only 
in the singular. 

4. A participial adjective is a word that has the form of a parti- 
ciple, and performs the office of an adjective ; as, a beloved child ; 
a lasting impression. See Rem. under § 81. 



ARTICLES.* 

§ 102. The definitive adjectives a or an, and the, are 
denominated articles. 

1. A or an is called the indefinite article, because it does 

Which demonstratives, and why? Sow is other declined? What is a 
participial adjective ? Examples. What words are called articles % 
Which is called an indefinite article, and why 1 

* The most approved definition of the article is equally applicable to the 
words one, that, this, these, and other definitives ; and any definition of the 
adjective, which is sufficiently comprehensive to include the definitives 
this, that, etc. will include also the words a and the. With what propriety, 
then, can the articles be separated from other definitives, and made to con- 
stitute a distinct part of speech ? 

"A or an, and the, are not a distinct part of speech in our language." — 
Webster. 

" The words a or an, and the, are reckoned by some grammarians a sep- 
arate part of speech ; but, as they in all respects come under the definition 
of the adjective, it is unnecessary, as well as improper, to rank them as a 
class by themselves." — Connon." 

"It is unnecessarv, in any language, to regard the articles as a distinct 
part of speech." — tiuttmanrCs Greek Gramma?: 

The articles are also ranked with adjectives by Priestley, E. Oliver, Bell, 
Elphinston, M'Culloch, D'Orsey, Lindsay, Joel, Greenwood, Smetham, Dal- 
ton, King, Hort, Buchanan, Crane, J. Eussell, Frazee, Cutler, Perley, Swett, 
Day, Goodenow, Willard, Bobbins, Felton, Snyder, Butler, S. Barrett, 
Badgley, Howe, Whiting, Davenport, Fowle, Weld, and others. 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 

not indicate any particular object ; as, a book ; that is, any 
book. 

2. The is called the definite article, because it indicates 
some particular object ; as, the book ; that is, some par- 
xmlar book. 

Rem. 1. — A is used before words beginning with a consonant 

sound; as, a tree, a house, a union, a ewe, a youth, a eulogy, a one, 

a world. 

Obs. — The words union, ewe, and eulogy, commence with the consonant 
sound of y ; and the word one commences with the consonant sound of w. 

Rem. 2. — An is used before words beginning with a vowel 
sound; as, an eagle, an hour, an outline. 

Rem. 3. — An is also employed, by most writers, before words be- 
ginning with h not silent, when the accent falls on the second syl- 
lable. 

Examples: — "An historical piece." — Irving. "An historical sub- 
ject." — Goldsmith. " An hereditary government." — E. Everett 
" An harmonious whole." — Southey. 
Rem. 4. — A or an is the Saxon word ane or an, signifying one. 

COMPARISON. 

§ 103. The comparison of adjectives is the variation 
by which they express different degrees of quality. 

There are three degrees of comparison ; — the positive, 
the comparative, and the superlative. 

1. The positive degree* is that which expresses th& sim- 
ple state of the quality ; as, good, wise. 

Which is called the definite article, and why ? Before what words is a 
used ? Examples. When is an used ? Examples. What rule is observed 
respecting the form of the article before a word beginning with h not silent ? 
Examples. What is the comparison of adjectives ? What are the differ- 
ent degrees % What is the positive degree 1 Examples. 

*It has been objected to the positive form, that, as it denotes the quality 
in its simple state, without increase or diminution, it cannot properly be 
called a degree. It should, however, be considered that all adjectives imply 



ADJECTIVES. 71 

2. The comparative degree denotes that one object pos- 
sesses a higher or lower degree of the quality than an- 
other with which it is compared; as, letter, wiser, less 
wise. 

3. The superlative degree denotes that one of several 
objects possesses a higher or lower degree of the quality 
than any of the rest ; as, best, wisest, least wise. 

§ 104. The comparative of adjectives of one syllable, 
is commonly formed by adding r or er to the positive ; as, 
wise, wiser ; great, greater ; and the superlative, by add- 
ing st or est ; as, wise, wisest ; great, greatest. 

Adjectives of more than one syllable, are generally 
compared by prefixing more and most to the positive ; as, 
generous, more generous, most generous. 

Diminution of quality is expressed by less and least, 
whether the adjective is of one syllable or more than one ; 
as, bold, less bold, least bold. 

Rem. 1. — Dissyllables ending in y or silent e, and those accented 
on the last syllable, are often compared like monosyllables, by er 
and est; as, happy, happier, happiest; noble, nobler, noblest; pro- 
found, profounder, profoundest. 

Rem. 2. — The foregoing principles, respecting the comparison of ad- 
jectives, are those which conform to the prevailing usage of the lan- 

What does the comparative degree denote ? Examples. The super- 
lative ? Examples. How are adjectives of one syllable generally com- 
pared 1 Examples. How are adjectives of more than one syllable gen- 
erally compared ? Examples. How is diminution of quality expressed ? 
Examples. What classes of dissyllables are often compared by er and est ? 
[ What is a dissyllable ?] Examples of dissyllables compared by er and est. 

a general comparison of qualities. Thus, when we say that a man is dis- 
creet, we obviously mean that he has more discretion than the generality 
of men. So also, when we say a man is tall, it is implied that he is tall 
compared with other men. Hence arises the difference between the height 
of a tall man and that of a tall tree, each being compared with others of 
the same kind. In this sense, therefore, the positive is strictly and properly 
a degree of comparison. 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

guage. They are, however, in some cases, disregarded by the best writ- 
ers ; as, " Objects of our tenderest cares." — E. Everett. "The commonest 
material object." — Dana. " The soberest truth." — Charming. 

Rem. 3. — In all qualities capable of increase or diminution, the num- 
ber of degrees from the highest to the lowest is indefinite. Whenever we 
wish to express any of the different shades of quality which are not de- 
noted by the three forms of the adjective, we employ various modifying 
words and phrases ; as, rather, somewhat, slightly, a little, so, too, very, greatly, 
highly, exceedingly, in a high degree. 

Examples : — " A very pernicious war ;" ^-" It is a little discolored ; " 
— " Too strong to bend, too proud to learn." 

Rem. 4. — The termination ish is also joined to certain words, to de- 
note a slight degree of quality; as, black, blackish; salt, saltish. 

Rem. 5. — When either of the words more, most, less, least, is prefixed 
to an adjective, it may be considered as forming a part of the adjective. 
Thus, the compound terms more happy and less happy, are regarded as ad- 
jectives in the comparative degree ; but when the words are considered 
separately, the prefixes more, most, etc., are properly adverbs. 

Rem. 6. — The following adjectives are compared irregularly: — 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Good better best 

Bad, evil, or ill worse worst 

p ( farther* farthest 

( further furthest 

Fore former $ foremost (in place) 

I first (in time or order) 

Late later \ J at f * ( re f e ™y to time) 

I last (in order) 
Little less least 

Much or many more most 

•xt ( nearest (referring to place) 

Near nearer < Vs- j \ 

I next (in order) 

Ql -, ( older oldest 

( elder eldest 

Rem. 7. — Some adjectives in the superlative degree are formed by 
adding most to the comparative, or to the word from which the compara- 
tive itself is made ; as, hind, hinder, hindermost or hindmost ; nether, nether- 
most ; up, upper, uppermost or upmost ; in, inner, innermost or inmost. 

Rem. 8. — Adjectives whose signification does not admit of in- 
crease or diminution, cannot be compared ; as, square, first, one, all, 
any, wooden, daily, infinite. 

What adjectives are compared irregularly ? Compare them. What adjec- 
tives cannot be compared ? Examples. 

* " Further is the genuine Saxon word ; farther takes precedence in mod- 
ern use." — Smart's Diet. 



ADJECTIVES. 73 

Obs. — The word perfect* and some othersf which are not strictly 
comparable, are often qualified by more and most, and by less and least. 
Examples : — " A more perfect civilization." — B. B. Edwards. " The 
most perfect society." — E. Everett. " Less perfect imitations." — 
Macavday. " The more perfect oneness." — Dana. 
§ 105. Adjectives are sometimes used to perform the office of nouns, 
as " Providence rewards &e good ; " and Hpuns to perform the office of 
adjectives, as " An iron fence ; " — " Meadow ground." 

EXERCISES. 

§ 106. Good, this, seven, round, British, the, those, straight, 
fortieth, white, all, rich, any, Chinese, two, an, virtuous, eigh- 
teen, destructive, a, some, Alpine, first, many, boiling water, 
heated iron. 

Which of the foregoing adjectives are descriptive and which definitive ? 
Which of them are proper? Which numeral f Which pronominal? 
Which participial? Which are articles 1 

Compare the following adjectives : — 

Strong, robust, sincere, low, swift, grateful, little, bad, stu- 
dious. 

" This site commands an extensive view of the surround- 
ing country." — " The rapid current of a large river, the 
foaming cataract, the vivid flash of forked lightning, and the 
majestic rolling of the mighty ocean, are objects which excite 
in our minds emotions of grandeur and sublimity." — " Every 
leaf and every twig teems with life." — " Homer was the 
greater genius ; Virgil, the better artist." — " Rhode Island is 
the smallest state in the Union." — " Numbers are expressed 
by ten Arabic characters." 

Point out the adjectives in the foregoing sentences. Which of them 
are descriptive 1 Which definitive ? Which are proper ? Which nume- 
ral ? Which pronominal ? Which participial ? Which are the articles ? 
Which of the descriptive adjectives are in the positive degree 1 Compare 
them. Which are in the comparative ? Compare them. Which in the 
superlative ? Compare them. 

t " Usage has given to * more and most perfect ' a sanction which we dare 
hardly controvert." — Crombie. 

\ " More complete, most complete, less complete, are common expressions." 
— Webster. 



74 ^ ETYMOLOGY. 

Write sentences containing examples of descriptive and definitive 
adjectives; and others containing examples. of adjectives in each of the 
three degrees of comparison. 



THE PRONOUN. 

§ 107. A Pronoun* is a word used to supply the place 
of a noun ; as, " When Caesar had conquered Gaul, he 
turned his army against his country." 

Eem. — The word which is represented by a pronoun usually 
precedes it, and is hence called its antecedent. 

§ 108. Pronouns may be divided into three general 
classes ; — personal, relative, and interrogative. 

PERSONAL PRONOUN. 

§ 109. A. personal pronoun is a pronoun that expresses 
person and number of itself. 

The personal pronouns are I", thou or you, he, she, and 
it. I is of the first person ; thou or you is of the second ; 
and he, she, and it, are of the third. 

Pronouns, like nouns, have gender, person, number, 
and case. 

Rem. 1. — Personal pronouns are varied to distinguish the num- 
bers and cases ; but variety of form to distinguish the genders, is 
confined to the third person singular. 

What is a pronoun % Examples. What is the antecedent of a pronoun ? 
Into what general classes are pronouns divided ? What is a personal 
pronoun ? Enumerate the personal pronouns, and give the person of 
each. What modifications have pronouns % Far what are personal pro- 
nouns varied? 

*The term pi-o noun is derived from two Latin words, pro and nomen> 
which signify for a name. 



ADJECTIVES. 75 

Rem. 2. — As persons speaking or spoken to, are supposed to be pres- 
ent, and their sex sufficiently obvious, variety of form in the correspond- 
ing pronouns, to express distinction of gender, is unnecessary. But per- 
sons or things spoken of, being considered as absent, it is proper to make 
a distinction of gender : and the third person of the pronoun is accord- 
ingly distinguished by using he for the maseuline, she for the feminine, 
and it for the neuter. 

DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS, 
§ 110. First Person. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Norn. I 


we* 


Poss. My or mine 


our 


Obj. Me 


us 


Ind. Me or I 


we 



Rem. 1. — Mine and thine were formerly employed instead of my and 
thy, before words beginning with the sound of a vowel. This usage is 
now confined chiefly to poetry and the solemn style of prose. 

Examples: — "I kept myself from mine iniquity." — Ps. 18: 23. 
" Mine hour is not yet come.' 1 — John 2 : 4. 
" God stay thee in thine agony, my boy." — Willis. 

Rem. 2. — The first person singular is seldom used in the independent 
case, except by exclamation. The first person plural, when used inde- 
pendently, properly takes the same form as the nominative, though the 
objective form is sometimes employed. 

Examples : — "0 wretched we ! " — Dryden. " rare we ! " — Cow- 
per. " Ah ! luckless IP — Francis. 

"Ah me! neglected on the lonesome plain." — Beattie. 
" Me miserable ! which way shall I fly 
Infinite wrath and infinite despair 1 " — Milton. 

§111. Second Person. — Solemn Style. 
Singular. Plural. 

Nora. Thou ye or you 

Poss. Thy or thine your 

Obj. Thee you 

Ind. Thou ye or yon 

Decline I. Decline thou. 

* The plural of pronouns in the first and second persons, does not bear 
the same relation to the singular as the plural of nouns. Thus the plural 
men is equivalent to the repetition of the singular man. But the plural we 
is equivalent to the singular J, together with others in the second or third 
person, and not to the singular 1 repeated. So, also, the plural of thou is 
often equivalent to thou, together with others in the third person. 



76 ETYMOLOGY. 

Kem. 1. — The pronoun thou is employed in addressing the Deity, 
in the Sacred Scriptures, and in poetry. It also occurs in other 
solemn or impassioned prosaic writings, and the Society of Friends 
still use it in common discourse. 

Kem. 2. — The poets sometimes employee instead of you for the objec- 
tive plural ; as, 

" Brother, sweet sister, peace around ye dwell." — Hemans. 
" I told ye then he should prevail and speed 
On his bad errand." — Milton. 
This usage is generally regarded as inelegant. 



§112. Second Person. - 


- Common Style. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Norn. You 
Poss. Your 
Obj. You 
Ind. You 


you 
your 
you 
you 



Kem. — The word you * was originally plural in signification ; 

When is thou employed ? Examples. Decline you. What was the origi- 
nal use of you % 

# No usage of our language is more fully established than that which reo 
ognizes you as the representative of nouns in the singular number. 

" In the using of you to one, as well as to more than one (which is the 
Language of the Nation, not only spoke by the private persons, but extant 
in the both private and publick Writings of it), we do seem to imitate the 
French, who, as they have one word, viz. tu for tluou, and one, viz. vos for 
ye; so they have one which they use both to o7ie, and to more than one, in- 
differently; namely, vous, you." — Walker's Treatise of English Particles ; 
Itondon, 1653. 

Brightland, one of the earliest of our English grammarians, who wrote in 
1710, classes you with the singular pronouns I, thou, and he. Greenwood, 
in his celebrated grammar, which appeared the following year, says, " Thou 
or you is of the second person singular." This disposition of y&u was fol- 
lowed by the author of the British Grammar, and by Farro, Fisher, Bu- 
chanan, Dilworth, Smetham, Menye, and several other grammatical writers 
of the last century. 

Mr. Murray's grammar first appeared in 1795. Following the practice of 
the Society of Friends, — the community in which he was educated, — he 
restricted you to the plural number ; and such was the influence of his ex- 
ample, that this word was, for a time, very generally excluded from the list 
of singular pronouns. 

There has, however, always existed a respectable class of authors, who 
have treated the pronoun you as singular, when applied to an individual ; 
and, during the last twenty-five or thirty years, the number of this class has 
very rapidly increased. 

"It is altogether absurd to consider you as exclusively a plural pronoun 



PERSONAL PROXOO-. 77 

but it is now universally employed in papular discourse, to repre- 
sent either a singular or a plural noun. 

§ 113. Third Person. 





Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Neuter. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. 


He 


they 


She 


they 


It 


they 


Poss. 


His 


their 


Her 


their 


Its 


their 


Obj. 


Him 


them 


Her 


them 


It 


them 


Inch 


He 


they 


She 


they 


It 


they 


Rem. 1 


. — In the 


third pe 


rson, masculine and fern 


inine, the 


indepen 



dent case has usually the nominative form, though the use of the objective 
is not wholly destitute of authority.* 

Examples : — " All luckless he ! " — Shenstone. 

i; God from the mount of Sinai, whose gray top 
Shall tremble, he descending, will himself 
Ordain them laws." — Milton. 

" ^Miserable they, 
Who, here entangled in the gathering ice, 
Take their last look of the descending sun.'" — Thomson. 

Decline he, she. and it. 

in the modern English language. It may be a matter of history, that it was 
originally used as a plural only ; and it'rrmy be a matter of theory, that it 
was first applied to individuals on a principle of flattery : but the fact is, 
that it is now our second person singular. When applied to an individual, 
it never excites any idea either of plurality or of adulation ; but excites, 
precisely and exactly, the idea that was excited by the use of thou, in an 
earlier stage of the language." — Jeffrey, in the Edinburgh Review. 

M If a word, once exclusively plural, becomes, by universal use, the sign 
of individuality, it must take its place in the singular number. That this 
is the fact Avitti you, is proved by national usage." — Webster. 

A list of additional authorities is subjoined for the gratification of the cu- 
rious student. The writers here enumerated treat the pronoun you as sin- 
gular, when applied to an individual : — Angeli, C. Adams, A. Alden, Booth, 
Bell. Brace, Barnard, Barrie, John Barrett, D.'Blair, Cochran, Cutler, Cobb, 
Davis, Elmore, Emmons, Eelton, Fletcher, Fuller, Fowle, Gilbert, Goode- 
now, Goldsburv, R. "W. Green, Gurnev. Joel, Judson, Lewis, Morlev, M'Cul- 
loch, Pulien, J. M. Putnam, Picket/ Pinnock, Ross, W. E. Russell, Caleb 
Reed, Snyder, Swett, R. C. Smith, P. Smith, Stearns, Sanborn, Todd, 
Ticken, Wilcox. Wilbur. G. Wilson, J. P.Wilson, Weld, ^Cready, Cooper, 
Powers, AVhiting. Beall, J. Ward. 

* "Of the two forms, l him excepted' and ' he excepted,' the former (con- 
trary to the sentiment of the majority of grammarians) is the correct one*" 
— Latham. 

11 This inaccessible high strength, the seat 
Of deity supreme, us dispossessed, 
He trusted to have seized." — Milton, 



78 ETYMOLOGY. 

Rem. 2. — His* was formerly employed as the possessive of both/;e 
and it. 

Examples : — " Put up again thy sword into his place." — Matt. 26 : 
52. " Learning hath his infancy, when it is but beginning, and 
almost childish." — Bacon. 
Rem. 3. — My, thy, his, her, its, our, your, and their, are sometimes, 
though improperly, termed pronominal adjectives. 

§ 114. Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, are possessive 
pronouns, used in construction either as nominatives or objectives ;f 
as, " Your pleasures are past, mine are to come." Here the word 
mine, which is used as a substitute for my pleasures, is the subject 
of the verb are. 

Rem. The words hers, its, ours,ijours, theirs, are sometimes improperly 
written her's, ifs, our's, your's, their's. This error should be carefully 
avoided. 

§ 115. The words myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself and 
itself, with their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves, are 
called compound personal pronouns. They are frequently joined 
to nouns and simple pronouns, to express emphasis ; as, " You 
yourselves are the contrivers of your own ruin ; " — " The moun- 
tains themselves decay with years." They are also used when the 
subject and the object of the verb both represent the same person 
or thing. "I blame myself;" — " He blames me." /and myself 
here denote the same person, and we use the compound pronoun. 

What is said of the possessive pronouns, mine, thine, etc. ? Illustrate 
their use. What are the compound personal pronouns t When are they 
employed ? Examples. 

* u The possessive its does not appear before the seventeenth century." — 
Booth. " Its is not found in the Bible, except by misprint." — G. Brown. 

f Mine, thine, etc., are often parsed as pronouns in the possessive case, 
and governed by nouns understood. Thus, in the sentence, " This book is 
mine," the word mine is said to possess booh. That the word booh is not 
here understood, is obvious from the fact, that, when it is supplied, the 
phrase becomes^ a&bt ".mine book," but "my book," the pronoun being 
changed from mine to my ; so that we are made, by this practice, to parse 
mine as possessing a word understood, before which it cannot properly be 
used. The word mine is here evidently employed as a substitute for the 
two words, my and book. 

" That mine, thine, yours, his, hers, theirs, do not constitute a possessive 
case, is demonstrable ; for they are constantly used as the nominatives to 
verbs and as objectives after verbs and prepositions." — Webster. 

See also Dr. Wilson, Smart, Jenkins, Goodenow, Jaudon, Felch, Hazen, 
Todd, E. Smith, Cooper, Cutler, and Davis. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 79 

Rem. — The word self, when used alone, is a noun ; as, " The love of 
self is predominant." 



EELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 116. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates 
directly to some preceding word or phrase, and serves to 
connect sentences. 

Rem. 1. — When the antecedent of a relative is in the independent 
case, the pronoun connects a simple sentence with the independent nonn 
or pronoun and its adjuncts ; as, 

" Ye undying and desperate sons of the brave, 
Who so often your valor have shown." 

Rem. 2. — The connective office of a relative pronoun should 
always be pointed out in parsing. Thus, in the compound sen- 
tence, " Bless them that curse you," the pronoun? that is the subject 
of the verb curse in one of the members ; and it relates to them, 
which is the object of the verb bless in the other member. A rela- 
tive pronoun always relates to some word out of the clause in which 
it stands, and thus joins the two clauses together. 

§ 117. The words used as relative pronouns, are who, 
ivhichj that, and what. 

Who is applied to persons, and which to irrational ani- 
mals and things without life ; as, u The man who is ac- 
customed to reflect, finds instruction in every thing ; " — 
" I have found the book which I had lost." 

That is used for who or which, and may be applied ei- 
ther to persons or things ; as, " He that gathereth in sum- 
mer, is a wise son ; n — "A city that is set on a hill, 
cannot be hid." 

What is a relative pronoun ? Illustrate the connective office of relatives. 
Enumerate the relative pronouns. What are the respective applications 
of who, which, and that ? Examples of each. 



80 ETYMOLOGY. 

Who, which, and that, are thus declined : — 

Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Plur. 

Norn. Who Which That 

Poss. Whose Whose* Whose 

Obj. Whom Which That 

Ind. Who Which 

§ 118. The word what is often used as a compound relative pro- 
noun, equivalent in signification to that which\ or those which ; as, 
" One man admires what [that which'] displeases another." What 
here sustains the relation of both the nominative and the objective 
case. As a nominative, it is the subject of the verb displeases ; as 
an objective, it is the object of admires. 

Rem. I. — What sometimes performs, at once, the office of an 
adjective and a pronoun ; as, " What time remained, was well em- 
ployed." As an adjective, what here qualifies time ; as a pronoun, 
it is the subject of the verb remained. 

Rem. 2. — Whoever, whichever, whatever, and whosoever, whichso- 
ever, whatsoever, are also used as compound pronouns, and parsed in 

Decline the relatives who, which, and that. How is what often used? 
Examples. What two parts of speech does wh$t sometimes represent ? Ex- 
amples. What other words are employed as compound relatives ? Examples. 

* The possessive of which is, in many grammars, marked as wanting ; 
but the use of whose, as the possessive of both who&ndi which, may now be 
regarded as fully established by the authority of our most eminent writers 
and speakers. 

Examples : — " Cedar groves, tvhose gigantic branches threw a refresh- 
ing coolness over the verdure." — Prescott. "At such times, I am 
apt to seek the Hall of Justice, whose deep, shadowy arcades extend 
across the upper end of the Court." — Irving. " Statues, whose mis- 
erable and mutilated fragments are the models of modern art." — E. 
Everett. "Impressions, whose power can scarcely be calculated." — 
Cheever. " He wanted learning, whose place no splendor of genius 
can supply to the lawyer." — Wirt. " Dramas, whose termination is 
the total ruin of their heroes." — J. G. Lochhart. ," A triangle, or 
three-sided figure, one of whose sides is perpendicular to another." — 
Brougham. Other examples from the best authorities might be 
multiplied at pleasure. 
" I have given whose as the genitive of which ; not only because this 
usage is sanctioned by classical authority, but likewise because the other 
form, of which, is frequently awkward and inelegant." — Dr. Crombie. 

f Many grammarians erroneously substitute the two equivalent words, 
that which, and parse them instead of the original word what. This is pars- 
ing their own language, and not the author's. The word tvhat, v/hen com- 
pound, should be parsed as performing the office of two nominatives, or two 
objectives, or of both a nominative and an objective. 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 81 

the same manner as the compound what. Thus, in the sentence, 

" Whoever disregards the laws of his being, must suffer the penalty," 

whoever is the subject of the two verbs, disregards and must suffer. 

Rem. 3. — Whoso was formerly used as a compound prondun, in the 
sense of whosoever ; as, " Whoso, therefore, shall swear by the altar, swear- 
eth by it, and by all things thereon." It is now nearly obsolete. 

Rem. 4. — Which and ichat are sometimes used as adjectives ; 
as, " For which reason ; " — u What tongue can tell ? " 

§119. The distinction between personal and relative pronouns 
should receive special attention. Each of the personal pronouns is 
used to represent one of the three persons, and no other. Thus / 
is always of the first person, and he always of the third. A relative 
pronoun does not express person of itself, but always depends on 
its antecedent for person. Thus, we may say, u I who speak ; " 
" You who speak ; " "He who speaks/' Who is here employed in 
each of the three persons. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 120. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that is 
used in asking a question ; as, " Who is this ? " The 
words used as interrogative pronouns, are who, which, and 
what. 

Rem. 1. — Who ) used interrogatively, is applied only to persons ; 

which and what are applied to both persons and things. 

Rem. 2. — Whether, signifying which of the two, was formerly used as 
an interrogative : as, " Whether of them twain did the will of his father ? * 
In this sense it is now out of use. 



EXERCISES. 

$ 121. Give the person, number, and case of each of the following pro- 
nouns : — 

His, she, its, thee, he, they, our, I, them. 

Give examples of which and what, used as adjectives. Explain and illuS' 
trate the distinction between personal and relative pronouns. What is an in- 
terrogative pronoun 1 Enumerate the interrogatives. To what are the 
interrogatives who, which, and what, respectively applied f 



82 ETYMOLOGY. 

What personal pronoun is in the third person singular, masculine gender^ 
and possessive case ? — in the second person singular, solemn style, and objective 
case ? — in the third person plural, nominative case ? — in the first person plu- 
ral, objective case ? — in the first person singular, possessive case ? — in the 
second person plural, nominative case ? — in the third person singular, neuter 
gender, possessive case ? — in the second pei'son singular, common style, nomina- 
tive case ? — in the third person singular, feminine gender, nominative case ? — 
in the first person plural, possessive case? Give the person, number, and case 
of him ; — me; — its 9 — she ; — them ; — us ; — my 5 — thee. 

" As he was valiant, I honor him." — u The crime which 
has been once committed, is committed again with less reluc- 
tance." — " I charge thee, fling away ambition." — " He that 
trusteth in his riches, shall fall." — " Virtue is most laudable 
in that state which makes it most difficult." — " Who wrote 
the letter ? " — " You wrong yourself." — " thou that roll- 
est above, round as the shield of my fathers ! " 

Point out the pronouns in the foregoing sentences. Which of them 
are personal ? Which relative ? * Which interrogative ? Give the per- 
son, number, gender, and case of each, with the reasons. 

Model. — He (in the first sentence above) is a pronoun, because it is 
a word used to supply the place of a noun ; — personal, because it ex- 
presses person and number of itself; — in the third person, because it 
denotes a person spoken of; — in the singular number, because it denotes 
but one: — in the masculine gender, because it denotes a male; — and 
in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb was. 

Write sentences containing examples of personal, relative, and inter- 
rogative pronouns. 



THE VERB. 

§ 122. A Verb * is a word that expresses an assertion 
or affirmation ; f as, I am; I teach ; I am taught. 

What is a verb 1 Examples. 

* The term verb is derived from the Latin verhum, which signifies a word. 
This part of speech is so called because the verb is the principal word in a 
sentence. 

f The idea of a verb is not easily expressed in a single sentence. The 



VERBS. 83 

A Verb may also be used to command, exhort, request, 
and inquire, as " Be silent," " Spare me," " Have you 
written the letter ? " and to express an action or state in 
a general and abstract sense, as doing, to obey. 

§ 123. Verbs are divided into two general classes ; — 
transitive and intransitive* 

1. A transitive verb is a verb that governs an objective 
case ; as, " Henry has learned his lesson" 

The term transitive signifies passing over, 

2. An intransitive verb is a verb that does not govern 
an objective case; as, "He is;" — " The horse runs" 

Rem. — There are some verbs which may be used either transi- 
tively or intransitively, the construction alone determining to which 
class they belong. 

§ 124. Transitive verbs have two forms, called the ac- 
tive and the passive voice.j 

What other uses have verbs ? Into what general classes are verbs 
divided 1 What is a transitive verb ? Examples. What is an intransi- 
tive verb ? Examples. What two forms have transitive verbs ? 

definition here adopted is based on the most distinguishing characteristic of 
this part of speech ; and is substantially the same as that of Priestley, Blair, 
Harris, Beattie, Crombie, Andrews and Stoddard, the British Grammar, 
Rees's Encyc, Brewster's Encyc, Grant, Sutcliffe, M'Culloch, Bullions, 
Fletcher, Cooper, Goldsbury, Frost, Parkhurst, Butler, Hart, and others. 

* "The proper division of verbs is into transitive and intransitive; for 
this distinction is practical, and has an effect in the formation of sentences, 
which is not true of the other distinctions. " — Goodenow. 

u This classification of verbs is founded on their use in the construction 
of sentences." — Frazee. 

The division of words into transitive and intransitive is also adopted in 
the grammars of Arnold, Webster, M'Culloch, Hart, Crane, Frost, Butler, 
Bullions, Connon, R. W. Green, Reed, Perley, Ussher, Fuller, Staniford, 
Bingham, Locke, Ticknor, Lindsay, Earl, Spear, Story, Webber, Nutting, 
Cobb, and others. 

f " Active and passive do not denote two different kinds of verb, but one 
kind under two different forms, denominated the active and passive voice." 
— Bullions. 

" It needs no argument to prove that ' I am struck ' is just as really a 
modification of to strike, as ' I have struck ' is ; and yet, under the old clas- 
sification of active, passive, and neuter, the pupil was taught to consider 
these forms as two verbs belonging to different classes." — Hart. 



84 ETYMOLOGY. 

1. The active voice represents the subject or nominative 
as acting upon some object. 

2. The passive voice represents the nominative as being 
acted upon. 

Kem. 1. — In the sentence, " Csesar conquered Pompey," the 

verb conquered represents the nominative Ccesar as acting upon 

the object Pompey. The verb conquered is therefore in the active 

voice. But in the expression, " Pompey was conquered by Caesar," 

the verb was conquered represents the nominative Pompey as being 

acted upon. The verb was conquered is therefore in the passive 

voice. 

[When a verb is said to be transitive, and no mention is made of the 
voiee, it is understood to be in the active voice. The passive voice of a 
transitive verb is often denominated a passive verb.] 

Kem. 2. — A verb in the passive voice is composed of the per- 
fect participle of a transitive verb, and one of the forms of the 
verb to be ; * as, are heard, were heard, am heard, to be heard. 

Rem. 3. — Most intransitive verbs do not admit of the passive 
form. Thus, instead of saying, a Very great abuses are crept into 
this entertainment," it would be better to say, " Very great abuses 
have crept into this entertainment" But the verbs come and go, 
and perhaps a few others, may, in some cases, properly assume the 
passive form ; as, ll The time is come."—- Channing. " The sharp 
touches of the chisel are gone from the rich tracery of the arches." 
— Irving. Verbs of this description are usually denominated neu- 
ter passive verbs. 

§ 125. Verbs are also divided into regular and irreg- 
ular. 

What does the active voice represent 1 The passive voice ? Illustrate. 
Of what is a verb in the passive voice composed? Examples. What verbs 
do not generally admit the passive form ? Illustrate. What exceptions are 
there to this principle ? Examples. Into what other classes are verbs di- 
vided ? 

# Many respectable grammarians reject the passive voice of the verb al- 
together ; parsing the participle by itself, and the verb to be as a principal 
verb. See Rees's Cyclopaedia, and the Grammars of Nutting, Crombie, 
S. Oliver, Ash, Lewis, and Connon. 



VERBS. 85 

1. A regular verb is one that forms its past tense and 
perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present ; as, 
present, love; past, loved ; perf. part., loved; call, called, 
called. 

Rem. 1. — Regular verbs ending in silent e, form their past tense and 
perfect participle, by the addition of d only ; and those ending in any 
other letter, by the addition of ed. 

Rem. 2. — The verbs hear, pay, say, and lay, which do not end in e, and 
which add d only for the past tense and perfect participle, are classed 
with irregular verbs. 

2. An irregular verb is one that does not form its past 
tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the pres- 
ent; as, present, see; past, saw; perf. part., seen; go, 
went, gone. 

EXERCISES. 

§ 126. " The tree grows." — " Columbus discovered Amer- 
ica." — " You were expected." — " Man is mortal." — " We 
are observed." — " He received an injury." 

Point out the verbs in the foregoing sentences. Which of them are 
regular 1 Which irregular % Which are transitive ? Which intransi- 
tive ? Which passive % 

Name three regular verbs ; — three irregular. 

Write sentences containing examples of transitive, intransitive, and 
passive verbs. 

MODE. 

§ 127. Mode is a term used to denote the manner in 
which the verb is employed. 

Verbs have five modes;* — the indicative, the sub- 

What is a regular verb 1 Examples. What is an irregular verb ? 
Examples. What is mode ? Enumerate the different modes. 

* The recognition of a potential mode, in so many of our popular gram- 
mars, affords a striking example of the power of custom. The expressions, 
"It may rain," "He may go ? " "lean ride," etc., are manifestly declara- 
tive; and the verbs may ram, may go, can ride, etc., are appropriately 
ranked in the indicative mode. "I can walk," expresses quite as distinct 
8 



86 ETYMOLOGY. 

junctive, the imperative, the infinitive, and the parti- 
cipial* 

§ 128. The indicative mode is that which indicates or 
declares, or asks a question ; as. He can learn ; Does he 
learn? Can he learn? 

Bem. 1. — The common form of the indicative mode is that 
which merely expresses a declaration or an interrogation ; as, " He 
improves ; " — " Will you go f " 

Rem. 2. — The potential form of the indicative is that which ex- 
presses a declaration or asks a question, and also implies possibility, 
liberty, power, determination, obligation, necessity, etc. ; as, " He can 
walk ; " — " We must return ; " — " AVhat would they have ? " 

[In speaking of the common form of the indicative, it will generally 

What is the indicative mode ? Examples. What is the common form 
of theindicative mode ? Examples. The potential form ? Examples. 

a declaration as "I walk." Thus, "I can walk," declares that I have the 
power to walk ; while " I walk," declares the act of walking. 

Most authors who recognize a potential mode, still class such expressions 
as " If I should go," with the subjunctive. But " I should go," asserts or 
declares the same thing that " If I should go," expresses under a condition ; 
and hence the difference between them is precisely the distinction between 
the indicative and the subjunctive. And since tne use of the conjunction 
if, produces no other effect than to change the sentence from a declarative 
to a conditional form, it is obvious that all of its potential qualities must 
still remain ; hence the clause, "If I should go," has the same claim to be 
ranked with the potential, as " I should go." If, then, this form of the verb 
is classed with the subjunctive mode when it is used conditionally, consis- 
tency would seem to require that it should be classed with the indicative, 
when its use is declaratory. 

Do the expressions, " He would walk," " They should learn," imply will 
or obligation more clearly than " I will obey," "Thou shalt not kill," " He 
ought to learn" ? 

"The mere expressions of will, possibility , liberty, obligation, etc., belong 
to the Indicative Mode." — LowtL 

" As to the potential mode, it may, I think, in all cases, be resolved into 
either the indicative or the subjunctive." — Beanie's Theory of Language. 

" The forms of expression, lean go, we may ride, he must obey, are really 
declaratory, and properly belong to the indicative." — Webster. 

The potential mode is also rejected by Jamieson, H. Ward, Martin, Coote, 
Cobbett, Lewis, Hazlitt, Hodgson, St. Quentin, Bell, Barrie, Buchanan, Coar, 
Trinder, Adam, Arnold, Higginson, Giles, Beall, Perry, Koss, Nutting, J. P. 
Wilson, Willard, Hallock, Dearborn, J. Flint, D. Adams, Judson, Pue, Car- 
dell, Cutler, Balch, French, and others. 

* If the participle is properly regarded as a form of the verb, it is obvious 
that it must be employed in some mode. In the conjugation of verbs, it is 



VERBS. 87 

be found convenient to employ merely the term indicative mode ; and in 
speaking of the potential form, to designate it as the potential indicative] 

Rem. 3. — Were is sometimes used for would be or should be; as, " Ah ! 
what were man, should Heaven refuse to hear ? " 

Rem. 4. — Had is also occasionally employed for would have, or should 
have ; as, " Had thought been all, sweet speech had [would have] been 
denied." — Young. 

§ 129. The subjunctive mode is that which implies conir 
dition, supposition, or uncertainty ; as, "If he had the 
opportunity, he would improve rapidly;" — " Take heed, 
lest any man deceive you." 

Rem. 1. — Every verb in the subjunctive implies two propositions ; 
the one principal, and the other subordinate. The subordinate 
clause is usually preceded by a conjunction, subjoining it to the an- 
tecedent, or principal clause, on which it depends. Thus, in the 
sentence, " I will remain if you desire it," the dependent clause, 
" you desire it," is preceded by the conjunction if, which subjoins it 
to the principal clause, " I will remain." 

Rem. 2. — The condition of a verb in the subjunctive is sometimes ex- 
pressed by transposition, without the aid of a conjunction ; as, " Had he 
taken the counsel of friends, he would have been saved from ruin." 

Rem. 3. — The subjunctive mode, like the indicative, admits of 

the potential form ; as, " He might improve, if he would make the 

necessary effort." See § 128. 

What is the subjunctive mode 1 Examples. What does every subjunc- 
tive clause imply ? Illustrate. What modification in form does the subjunc- 
tive admit ? Examples. 

uniformly introduced in connection with the other modes, and treated in 
every respect as a mode. 

" The participle is merely a mode of the verb, and it might properly be 
termed the participial mode. ■ ' — Sanborn. 

" If modes be the manner of representing the verb, we see no good rea- 
son why participles should not be reckoned a mode. 1 ' — Goodenoiv. 

" That the participle is a mere mode of the verb, is manifest, if our defini- 
tion of a verb be admitted." — Lowth. 

" There are four modes ; the Infinitive, Indicative, Imperative, and Sub- 
junctive, to which we may add the Participles, as necessary to be consid- 
ered together with the verb." — Higginson. 

" Mr. Murray contends strenuously for the participle, as ' a mode of the 
verb,' and yet has not the consistency of assigning it a place among the 
modes, as it must have, if it be any verb at all." — Willard. 

The participle is also ranked as a mode of the verb by Elphinston, Allen 
and Cornwell, Connell, De Sacy, St. Quentin, Felch, Fletcher, Gurney, 
Day, and others. 



W ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 130. The imperative mode is that which commands, 
exhorts, entreats, or permits ; as, " Geo thou ; " — " Study 
diligently ; " — " Forgive us our trespasses ; " — " Depart 
in peace." 

§ 131. The infinitive mode is the root or first form of 

the verb, used to express an action or state indefinitely ; 

as, to hear, to speak. It is generally distinguished by 

the sign to. 

Rem. — When the particle to is employed in forming the infinitive, it 
is to be regarded as a part of the verb. 

Participles. 

§ 132. The participle is a mode of the verb, partaking 
of the properties of the verb and the adjective; as, see- 
ing, seen, having seen, having been seen. 

Participles may be classed under two general divisions ; 
— imperfect* and perfect. 

1. An imperfect participle denotes the continuance of 
an action or state ; as, calling, seeing, being seen. 

Rem. — Imperfect participles relate to present, past, or future 

What is the imperative mode 1 Examples. The infinitive 1 Exam- 
ples. How is the infinitive generally distinguished ? What is the par- 
ticiple ? Examples. Into what general classes are participles divided 1 
What is an imperfect participle ? Examples. To what time do imperfect 
participles relate % 

# " The distinguishing characteristic of this participle is, that it denotes 
an unfinished and progressive state of the being, action, or passion ; it is 
therefore properly denominated the imperfect participle." — G. Broivn. 

" All that is peculiar to the participles is, that the one signifies a perfect, 
and the other an imperfect action." — Piclcbourri's Dissertation on the Eng- 
lish Verb. 

"The most unexceptionable distinction which grammarians make be- 
tween the participles, is, that the one points to the continuation of the action, 
passion, or state, denoted by the verb ; and the other, to the completion of 
it." — Micrray. 

See also Grant, Baldwin, Lewis, M'Culloch, Churchill, Connon, Butler, 
and R. W. Green. 



VERBS. 89 

time, according as they are connected with verbs in the present, 
past, or future tense. 

2.. A perfect participle denotes the completion of an 
action or state ; as, called, seen, having seen. 

§ 133. Participles are also divided into two other classes, called 
simple and compound. 

1. A simple participle is a participle that consists of only one 
word ; as, doing, done. 

2. A compound participle is a participle that is composed of two 
or more words ; as, being seen, having seen, having been seen. Being 
seen is a compound imperfect participle ; having seen and having 
been seen are compound perfect participles. 

Rem. 1. — Participles, like other modifications of the verb, are 

either transitive or intransitive. Thus, seeing and having seen are 

transitive ; being and walking, intransitive. Transitive participles 

are also distinguished by voices ; as, active, seeing, having seen ; 

passive, seen, having been seen. 

Rem. 2. — Participles often lose their verbal character, and become 
adjectives ; as, " A moving spectacle j n — "A revised edition." They are 
then called participial adjectives. 

Rem. 3. — Participles are also used to perform the office of nouns ; as, 
" They could not avoid submitting to this influence." When used in this 
manner, they are called participial nouns. 

§ 134. Besides the regular grammatical modes expressed by the verb, 
it is obvious that there must be numerous other distinctions of manner, 
which can be indicated only by the use of various modifying words and 
phrases j as, " The storm beats violently ; " — " The horse sleeps standing." 

TENSE. 

§ 135. Tense is the distinction of time. 

Verbs have six tenses ; — the present, the past* the 

What is a perfect participle ? Examples. A simple participle ? Exam- 
ples. A compound participle ? Examples. Name a transitive participle ; — 
intransitive. A participle in the active voice; — in the passive. What is 
tense 1 Enumerate the tenses. 

* The names of the tenses adopted in this treatise, have the sanction of 
Connell, Skillern, Hilev, Butler, Perley, Goodenow, Fletcher, and Farnum. 

a* 



90 ETYMOLOGY. 

future, the present perfect, the past perfect, and the 
future perfect. 

1. The present tense denotes present time ; as, I write; 
I am writing. 

2. The past (imperfect) tense denotes indefinite past 
time ; as, I wrote ; I was writing. 

3. The future tense denotes indefinite future time ; as, 
I shall write ; I shall be writing. 

4. The- present perfect (perfect) tense denotes past 
time, and also conveys an allusion to the present ; as, I 
have written ; I have been writing. 

5. The past perfect (pluperfect) tense denotes past 
time that precedes some other past time, to which it re- 
fers ; as, " When he had delivered the message, he took 
his departure." 

6. The future perfect (second future) tense denotes 
future time that precedes some other future time, to which 
it refers ; as, " I shall have finished the letter before he 
arrives." 

Rem. — Besides these six grammatical tenses, there are numerous other 
distinctions of time, which are expressed by various modifying words 
and phrases ; as, " I will go immediately ; " — "I will go soon ; " — "I will 
go in an hour ;" — " I will go to-morrow ;" — " I will go in the course of 
the week? 

What is the present tense ? Examples. The past tense ? Examples. 
What is the future tense % Examples. What is the present perfect 
tense ? Examples. The past perfect tense ? Examples. The future 
perfect tense 1 Examples. 

Similar terms, corresponding with the signification of the tenses, are also 
employed by Webster, Frazee, Day, Swett, Felton, Brace, Simmonite, 
Flower, Barrie, and others. 

" Several of the old names either convey no idea, or an erroneous one. 
The imperfect tense does not, in one case of a hundred, signify an imper- 
fect action ; the perfect tense is not the only one which represents a fin- 
ished action ; and if we speak of first and second future tenses, we may 
with equal propriety have first and second present, and first and second 
past tenses."— Perley. 



VERBS. 91 



NUMBER AND PERSON. 

§ 136. Verbs have two numbers and three persons. 
The person and number of a verb are always the same 
as the person and number of its subject or nominative. 

Rem. 1. — In the simple form of the present and past indicative, the 
second person singular of the solemn style ends regularly in st or est, as 
Thou seest, Thou hearest, Thou sawest, Thou heardest ; and the third per- 
son singular of the present, in s or es, as He hears, He wishes ; and also in 
th or eth, as He saith, He loveth. 

Rem. 2. — In the simple form of the present indicative, the third per- 
son singular of the common or familiar style, ends in s or es ; as. He sleeps, 
He rises. 

Rem. 3. — The first person singular of the solemn style, and the first 
and second persons singular of the common style, have the same form as 
the three persons plural. 

Rem. 4. — In forming the compound tenses of the verb, the auxil- 
iaries only are varied. 

Rem. 5. — Be and ought, and the auxiliaries shall, will, may, can, must, 
are irregular in their modifications to denote person. 

Rem. 6. — The verb need is often used in the third person singular of 
the indicative present, without the personal termination. 

Examples : — " The truth need not be disguised." — Channing. " It 
need only be added." — Prescott. " It need not be said." — E. Everett. 
K There was one condition, which need not be mentioned." — Irving. 
"Nothing need be concealed." — Cooper. "Time need not be wast- 
ed." — G.B.Emerson. '*No other historian of that country need 
be mentioned." — Hallam. " The reader need not be told." — Paley. 
" This is a species of inconsistency, of which no man need be 
ashamed." — Edinburgh Review. " It need not surprise us." — J. G. 
Lockhart. " It need scarcely be said." — N. A. Review. " Need sl 
bewildered traveller wish for more % " — Wordsworth. 

Rem. 7. — The subjunctive of all verbs, except be, takes the 
same form as the indicative. Good writers were formerly much 
accustomed to drop the personal termination in the subjunctive 
present, and write, " If he have," " If he deyiy," etc., for " If he 
has" "If he denies" etc. ; but this termination is now generally 
retained, unless an auxiliary is understood.* Thus, "If he hear" 

How many persons and numbers have verbs % With what do the per- 
son and number of a verb correspond ? What is said respecting the form 
of verbs in the subjunctive mode ? Illustrate. 

* " The use of the present tense of the subjunctive, without the personal 
terminations, was formerly very general. It was reserved for the classical 



92 ETYMOLOGY. 

may properly be used for " If he shall hear " or " If he should hear" 
when the auxiliary shall or should is manifestly implied ; but when 
no such ellipsis is obvious, the indicative form, " If he hears" is to 
be preferred. See § 146, Bern. 4. 

Examples : — "If the dramatist attempts to create a being answering 
to one of these descriptions, he fails." — Macajilay. " If he takes 
the tone of invective, it leads him to be uncharitable." — Southey. 
" If courage intrinsically consists in the defiance of danger and 
pain, the life of the Indian is a continual exhibition of it."— Irving. 
" He must feign, if he does not feel, the spirit and inspiration of 
the place." — Story. " If any pupil fails to reach this point, he is 
said to fall below the standard." — N. A. Review. Other authorities 
might be multiplied at pleasure. 
Hem. 8. — Infinitives and participles have neither number nor 
person. 

CONJUGATION. 

§ 137. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combi- 
nation and arrangement of its several modes, tenses, num- 
bers, and persons. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

§ 138. The three principal parts of a verb are the 
present tense, the past tense, and the perfect participle. 
These are called the principal or radical parts, because all 
the other parts are formed from them. 

AUXILIARIES. 

§ 139. An auxiliary verb is one that is used to aid in 
the conjugation of other verbs. 

What properties are wanting in infinitives and participles ? What is the 
conjugation of a verb ? What are the principal parts of a verb 1 Why 
so called ? What is an auxiliary verb ? 

writers of the eighteenth century to lay aside the pedantic forms, if he 
go, if it proceed, though he come, etc., and restore the native idiom of the 
language." — Webster. 



VERBS. 93 

Rem. — The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, 
with their variations, and must, which has no variation. Do, be, 
have, and will, are also used as principal verbs. Thus, in the sen- 
tence, " I have heard the news," have is used as an auxiliary to the 
principal verb heard. ; but in the sentence, " I have no time to de- 
vote to trifles," have is employed as a principal verb. 



Shall and Will. 

§ 140. In affirmative sentences, shall, in the first person, simply 
foretells: as, "I shall write." In the second and third persons, 
shall is used potentially, denoting a promise, command, or determina- 
tion ; as, " You shall be rewarded ; " — " Thou shalt not kill ; " — 
" He shall be punished." Will, in the first person, is used poten- 
tially, denoting a promise or determination ; as, "I will go, at all 
hazards." In the second and third persons, will simply foretells ; 
as, " You will soon be there ; " — " He will expect you." 

§ 141. In interrogative sentences, shall, in the first person, may 
either be used potentially to inquire the will of the party addressed, 
as, " Shall I bring you another book ? " or it may simply ask 
whether a certain event will occur, as, " Shall I arrive in time for 
the cars ? " When shall is used interrogatively in the second per- 
son, it simply denotes futurity ; as, " Shall you be in New York 
next week ? " Shall, employed interrogatively in the third person, 
has a potential signification, and is used to inquire the will of the 
party addressed ; as, " Shall John order the carriage ? " Will, used 
interrogatively in the second person, is potential in its signification ; 
as, " Will you go ? " Will may be used interrogatively in the third 
person, to denote mere futurity, as, " Will the boat leave to-day ? " 
or it may have a potential signification, inquiring the will of the 
party spoken of, as, " Will he hazard his life for the safety of his 
friend?" 

§ 142. In the subjunctive mode, shall, in all the persons, denotes 

Enumerate the auxiliaries. Which of these are also used as principal 
? 



94 ETYMOLOGY. 

mere futurity ; as, " If thy brother shall trespass against thee, go 
and tell him his fault." Will, on the contrary, is potential in its 
signification, having respect to the will of the agent or subject ; as, 
" If he will strive to improve, he shall be duly rewarded." 

§ 143. The following conjugation of shall and will is inserted to 
give the pupil a more distinct idea of the proper use of these 
auxiliaries : — 

Shall and Will. 

Affirmative. 

Simple Indicative. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person, I shall 1. We shall 

3d Person, He will 3. They will 

Potential Indicative.* 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I will 1. We will 

( You shall ( You shall 

*" | Thou shalt z ' | Ye shall 

3. He shall 8. They shall 

Interrogative. 

Simple Indicative. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Shall I? 1. Shall we? 

„ J Shall you? (Shall you? 

z ' \ Shalt thou? * "[Shall ye? 

3. Will he? 3. Will they? 

Which of the verbs in the following sentences are simple indicatives, and 
which have a potential signification ? — "I will go ; " — "I shall go ; " — 
"He shall obey; " — " Will you go? " — "Will they go?" — "You 
should improve your time." [Other similar questions respecting these 
auxiliaries, should be added by the teacher.] 



VERBS. 



95 



Potential Indicative. 



1. 
2. 
3. 



Singular. 

Shall I? 
f Will you ? 
(Wilt thou? 

Shall or will he ? 



Plural. 

Shall we ? 
( Will you ? 
{Will ye? \ 

Shall or will they ? 



Subjunctive. 

Simple Subjunctive. 



8. 



Singular. 

If I shall 
i If you shall 
( If thou shalt 

If he shall 



Plural. 

If we shall 
( If you shall 
( If ye shall 

If they shall 



Potential Subjunctive. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I will 
$lf you will 

* 1 If thou wilt *• 1 If ye will 

3. If he will 3. If they will 



L. If we will 
~ ( If you will 
*• llf] 



Should and Would. 

Affirmative. 

Simple Indicative. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I should 1. We should 

9 ( You would 9 \ You would 

z * (Thouwouldst l * (Ye would 

3. He would 3. They would 



Potential 

Singular. 

I should or would 
( You should or would 
( Thou shouldst or wouldst 

He should or would 



Indicative. 

Plural. 

We should or would 
i You should or would 
( Ye should or would 

They should or would 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Interrogative. 



Simple Indicative. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Should I? 1. Should we? 
9 ( Should you? ( Should you ? 

A ( Shouldst thou ? J * 1 Should ye ? 

3. Would he? 3. Would they? 

Potential Indicative. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Should or would I ? 1. Should or would we ? 

9 5 Should or would you ? 9 ( Should or would you ? 

( Shouldst or wouldst thou ? * ( Should or would ye ? 

3. Should or would he ? 3. Should or would they ? 

Subjunctive. 

Simple Subjunctive. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. EI should 1. If we should 

9 (If you should 9 (If you should 

( If thou shouldst ' | If ye should 

3. If he should 3. If they should 

Potential Subjunctive. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I would 1. If we would 

9 (If you would „ (If you would 

{if thou wouldst * \ If ye would 

3. If he would 3. If they would 

Rem. — Will, used as a principal verb, is conjugated regularly. 

§ 144. Correct Examples. 

" Yes, my son, I will point out the way, and my soul shall guide 
yours in the ascent ; for we will take our flight together." — Gold- 
smith. " The life of a solitary man will certainly be miserable, but 
not certainly devout." — Johnson. " The man who feels himself 
ignorant, should at least be modest" — Ibid. "He that would be 
superior to external influences, must first become superior to his 
own passions." — Ibid. 



VERBS. 97 

§ 145. Incorrect Examples. 

* What we conceive clearly, and feel strongly, we will naturally 
express with clearness and strength." — Blair. "A limb shall 
swing upon its hinge, or play in its socket, many hundred times in 
an hour, for sixty years together, without diminution of its agility. 
— Paley. " We have much to say on the subject of this life, and 
will often find ourselves obliged to dissent from the opinions of the 
biographer." — Macaulay. 



§ 146. CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB 
TO BE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, Am. Past, Was. Perf. Participle, Been. 
INDICATIVE MODE. — Common Form. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person, I am 1. We are 

, D ( You are f You are 

2d Person, } Thou art 2. j Yeare 

Sd Person, He is 3. " They are 

Rem. 1 . — In the Sacred Scriptures, and in the works of our early wri- 
ters, be is sometimes used for are ; as, " We be true men." 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Phiral. 

1. I was 1. We were 

2 C You were 2 ( You were 

' { Thou wast * \ Ye were 

3. He was 3. They were 

Correct the erroneous examples relating to the use of shall and will, and 
show why they are erroneous. What are the principal parts of the verb 
to be ? Conjugate this verb in the indicative mode, common form, and 
present tense ; — past tense. 
9 



98 ETYMOLOGY. 



FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be 1. We shall be 

< You will be « J You wil1 be 
z ' I Thou wilt be \ Ye will be 

3. He will be 3. They will be 



' PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been 1. We have been 

9 (" You have been 2 ( You have been 

( Thou hast been * \ Ye have been 

3. He has been 3. They have been 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I had been 1. We had been 

5 You had been 2 5 You na( * Deen 

( Thou hadst been ' ( Ye had been 

He had been 3. They had been 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been 1. We shall have been 

2 ( You will have been 2 ( You will have been 

* I Thou wilt have been ' ( Ye will have been 

3. He will have been 2. They will have been 



INDICATIVE MODE. — Potential Eorm. 

PRESENT Or FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must be 1. We may, can, or must be 

o 5 You mav > can > or must be « f You may, can, or must be 

I Thou mayest, canst, or must be * ( Ye may, can, or must be 
3. He may, can, or must be 3. They may, can, or must be 



Conjugate the verb to be, in the indicative mode, common form, future 
tense ; — present perfect tense ; — past perfect tense ; — future perfect 
tense. 



VERBS.. 99 



PRESENT, PAST, OT FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. 
1. I might, could, would, or should be 



2 



j You might, could, would, or should be 
\ Thou mightest, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be 
3. He might, could, would, or should be 



Plural 
1. "We might, could, would, or should be 
2 <" You might, could, would, or should be 

\ Ye might, could, would, or should be 
3. They might, could, would, or should be 

PRESENT PERFECT OT FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. 
1. I may, can, or must have been 
2 S You may, can, or must have been 

\ Thou may est, canst, or must have been 
3. He may, can, or must have been 

Plural. 
1. We may, can, or must have been 
2 C You may, can, or must have been 

( Ye may, can, or must have been 
3. They may, can, or must have been 

PRESENT PERFECT Or PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. 
1. I might, could, would, or should have been 
2 ( ^ ou Bright? could, would, or should have been 

I Thou mightest, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been 
3. He might, could, would, or should have been 

Plural. 
1. We might, could, would, or should have been 
2 ( You might, could, would, or should have been 

\ Ye might, could, would, or should have been 
3. They might, could, would, or should have been 

Rem. 2. — The potential use of the auxiliaries shall and will, consti- 
tutes another form of the potential indicative. See § 143. 

Rem. 3. — In determining the tense of a verb used potentially, the 
pupil should generally be governed by the sense of the passage which 
contains it, without any regard to the form of the verb. 



100 



ETYMOLOGY. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



1. 
2. 
3. 



PRESENT TENSE.- 

Singular. 
If I am 

you are 

thou art 
If he is 

PEESENT TENSE. 



IK 



Singular. 

If I be 
< If you be 
1 1f thou be 

If he be 



• Common Style. 

Plural. 

1. If we are 

2 (If you are 

' ( If ye are 

3. If they are 

- Ancient Style. 

Plural, 
If we be 
f If you be 
( If ye be 
If they be 



1. 

2< 
3. 



1. 

3. 



Singular. 

If I was 
( If you were 
\ If thou wast 

If he was 



PAST TENSE. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

FUTURE TENSE. 



1. 



Singular. 
If I shall be 



^ (If you shall be 
£ ' }lf thoushaltbe 
3. If he shall be 



3, 



Plural. 

If we were 
5 If you were 
( If ye were 

If they were 

« Plural. 

If we shall be 
( If you shall be 
(If ye shall be 

If they shall be 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

If I have been 1. If we have been 

( If you have been 2 (If you have been 

( If thou hast been ' \ If ye have been 

If he has been 3. If they have been 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 



1. 

2. 

3. 



Singular. 

If I had been 
you had been 
thou hadst been 

If he had been 



(if 
IK 



Plural. 

If we had been 
( If you had been 
( If ye had been 

If they had been 



Conjugate the verb to 6e, in the subjunctive mode, present tense, and 
common style ; — present tense, ancient style ; — past tense : — future 
tense; — present perfect tense ; — past perfect tense. 



VERBS. 101 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have been 1. If we shall have been 

~ (If you shall have been „ (If you shall have been 

\ If thou shalt have been ' \ If ye shall have been 

3. If he shall have been 3. If they shall have been 

HYPOTHETICAL FORM.* 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were 1. If we were 

2 (If you were ~ (If you were 

I If thou wert ' \ If ye were 

3. If he were 3. If they were 

Rem. 4. — This form of the verb be is commonly used, in the 
subjunctive mode, to express a supposition or hypothesis. When 
employed in a negative sentence, it implies an affirmation ; as, " If 
it were not so, I would have told you." When used in an af- 
firmative sentence, it implies a negation ; as, " If it were possible, 
they would deceive the very elect." The time denoted by this use 
of the verb, is sometimes present, and sometimes indefinite. See 
§ 136, Rem. 7. 

Rem. 5. — The past subjunctive of other verbs is often employed 
in a similar manner ; as, " I would walk out, if it did not rain ; " — 
" If I had the power, I would assist you cheerfully." 

Rem. 6. — The potential form of the subjunctive mode, is the 
same in most of the tenses, as the potential form of the indicative. 
The only difference between them is in the use of the auxiliaries, 
shall and will. See the conjugation of shall and will, § 143. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present, To be Present perfect, To have been 

Conjugate the verb to be in the subjunctive mode, future perfect tense. 
What is the use of the hypothetical form of the verb ? What peculiarity re- 
specting the affirmative and negative use of the hypothetical form of the verb ? 
Examples. ' What time is denoted by it ? With what docs the potential form 
of the subjunctive correspond ? What is the infinitive present of the verb 
to be ? — present perfect ? 

* See Hiley, Webster, Frazee, Butler, Waldo, D'Orsey, Connon, and Crane. 
9* 



102 ETYMOLOGY. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular, Be, or j g Jg, PW, Be, or j g ^ u 

Rem. 7. — Though imperatives are mostly confined to the second per- 
son, they are sometimes employed in the first and third persons.* 

Examples : — " Do we all holy rites." — Shah. " Come, go we then 
together." — Ibid. " Proceed we to mark more particularly." — 
Bp. Wilson. " Be not the muse ashamed." — Thomson. " This be 
thy just circumference, O world." — Milton. " Thy kingdom 
come: 1 — Matt. 6: 10. 

" My soul, turn from them ; turn we to survey 
Where rougher climes a nobler race display." — Goldsmith. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect, Being Perfect, J g?^ g been 

§ 147. Synopsis of the verb To Be. 

INDICATIVE. — COMMON FORM. 

Present, I am Present perfect, I have been 

Past, I was Past perfect, I had been 

Future, I shall be Future perfect, I shall have been 

POTENTIAL INDICATIVE. 

Present, or Future, I may, can, or must be 

Pres., Past, or Future, I might, could, would, or should be 

Future, I will be 

Pres. perf, or Fut. perf, I may, can, or must have been 

Pres. perf, or Past perf, I might, could, would, or should have been 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present tense, common style, If I am 

Present tense, ancient style, If I be 

Past tense, If I was 

Future tense, If I shall be 

Give the imperative ; — the participles. Repeat the synopsis of the verb 
to be, in the common form of the indicative ; — in the potential indicative ; 
— in the subjunctive. 

=*"In imitation of other languages which have two or three persons in 
the imperative mode, we occasionally meet with verbs used in a similar 
manner in the first, but more frequently in the third person." — Sanborn. 
See also Kirkham, Frazee, Perley, R. W. Green, Gurney, Crane, Grant, S. 
Oliver, and Coote. 



VERBS. 



103 



Present perfect, 
Past perfect, 
Future perfect, 
Hypothetical form, 



If I have been 
If I had been 
If I shall have been 
If I were 



INFINITIVE. 

Present, To be Present perfect, To have been 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present, Be, or Be you or thou 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Being Perfect, Been 



§H8. CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB 
TO LOVE, IN THE ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, Love. Past, Loved. Perf part, Loved. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



Singular. 

I love 
( You love 
( Thou lovest 

He loves 



Singular. 

I loved 
C You loved 
\ Thou lovedst 

He loved 



PRESENT TENSE. 



1. 



3. 



PAST TENSE. 



Plural. 

We love 
( You love 
I Ye love 

They love 



Plural. 

We loved 
( You loved 
( Ye loved 

They loved 



Repeat the synopsis of the verb to be in the infinitive. Give the im- 
perative : the participles. What are the principal parts of the verb to 
love ? Conjugate this verb in the indicative mode, present tense ; — 
past tense. 



104 ETYMOLOGY. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall love 1. We shall love 

9 ( You will love 9 ( You will love 

\ Thou wilt love ' ( Ye will love 

3. He will love 3. They will love 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved 1. We have loved 

9 ( You have loved 2 ( You have loved 

( Thou hast loved " { Ye have loved 

3. He has loved 3. They have loved 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved 1. We had loved 

9 ( You had loved 9 ( You had loved 

£m \ Thou hadst loved J * [Ye had loved 

3. He had loved 3. They had loved 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved 1. We shall have loved 

9 ( You will have loved 9 ( You will have loved 

\ Thou wilt have loved * \ Ye will have loved 

3. He will have loved 3. They will have loved 

Rem. — In the potential indicative of this and other verbs, the 
auxiliaries are the same as those already exhibited in the potential 
indicative of the verb to be. The subjunctive of all verbs, except 
to be, has the same form as the indicative. See § 136, Rem. 7. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
-Present, To love ~ Present perfect, To have loved 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular, Love, or j ^ J™ Plural, Love, or j ^ ^ u 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Loving Perfect, Having loved 

Conjugate the verb to love in the indicative mode, future tense ; — present 
perfect ; — past perfect ; — future perfect. What is said respecting the 
frimn of the potential indicative 1 — of the subjunctive ? Give the infinitive 
present ; — present perfect ; —the imperative ; — the participles. 



VERBS. 105 

§ 149. Synopsis of T o Love. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present, I love Present perfect, I have loved 

Past, I loved Past perfect, I had loved 

Future, I shall love Future perfect, I shall have loved 

INFINITIVE. 

Present, To love Present perfect, To have loved 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present, Love, or love thou or you 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Loving Perfect, Having loved 



§ 150. CONJUGATION OF TO LOVE, IN THE PASSIVE 

VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

B PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved 1. We are loved 

2 ( You are loved 2 f You are loved 

\ Thou art loved ' \ Ye are loved 

3. He is loved 3. They are loved 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved 1. We were loved 

2 ( You were loved 2 f You were loved 

"l Thou wast loved ' ( Ye were loved 

3. He was loved 3. They were loved 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be loved 1. We shall be loved 

2 (" You will be loved 2 K You will be loved 

( Thou wilt be loved ' { Ye will be loved 

3. He will be loved 3. They will be loved 

Give the synopsis of the verb to love. Conjugate the passive voice of 
the verb to love, in the indicative mode, present tense ; — past tense ; — 
future tense. 



106 ETYMOLOGY. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved 1. We have been loved 

2 C Yon have been loved 2 C Yon have been loved 

| Thou hast been loved ' \ Ye have been loved 

3. He has been loved 3. They have been loved 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved 1. We had been loved 

2 (" You had been loved ~ C You had been loved 
( Thou hadst been loved \ Ye had been loved 

3. He had been loved 3. They had been loved 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved 1. We shall have been loved 

2 C You will have been loved ~ j" ^ou will have been loved 

| Thou wilt have been loved ' \ Ye will have been loved 

3. He will have been loved 3. They will have been loved 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To be loved Present perfect. To have been loved 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural, Be loved, -r.gjj^ 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect, Being loved Perfect, { j£™[ g been ^^ 

§151. Synopsis of To be Loved. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present, I am loved Pres. perfect, I have been loved 

Past, I was loved Past perfect, I had been loved 

Future, I shall be loved Fut. perfect, I shall have been loved 

Conjugate this verb in the indicative mode, present perfect ; — past per- 
fect*, — future perfect tense. Give the infinitive present; — present per- 
fect ; — the imperative ; — the participles. Give the synopsis of to be 
loved. 



VERBS. 107 

INFINITIVE. 

Present, To be loved Present perfect. To have been loved 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present, Be loved, or Be you or thou loved 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Being loved Perfect, Loved, Having been loved 



§ 152. CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB 
TO SEE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, See. Past, Saw. Perfect Participle, Seen. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I see 1. We see 

2 C You see 2 5" ^ ou see 

{ Thou seest * { Ye see 

3. He sees 3. They see 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I saw 1. We saw 

2 < You saw 2 ( You saw 

* I Thou sawest " \ Ye saw 

3. He saw 3. They saw 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall see 1. We shall see 

~ ( ^ ou wu *l see o S ^ ou ^1 see 

( Thou wilt see ' \ Ye will see 

3. He will see 3. They will see 

Conjugate the verb to see, in the indicative mode, present tense j — 
past tense ; — future tense ; — present perfect ; — past perfect j — future 
perfect. In the infinitive present ; — present perfect. In the imperative. 
Give the participles. 



108 ETYMOLOGY. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have seen 1. We have seen 

2 ( You have seen 2 ( You have seen 

I Thou hast seen ' ( Ye have seen 

3. He has seen 3. They have seen 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had seen 1. We had seen 

2 < Yon had seen 2 ( You had seen 

( Thou hadst seen " ( Ye had seen 

8. He had seen 3. They had seen 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural* 

1. I shall have seen 1, We shall have seen 

o i You will have seen ~ ( You will have seen 

( Thou wilt have seen ' (Ye will have seen 

3. He will have seen 3. They will have seen 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To see Present perfect, To have seen. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular, See, or { g£ J™ **** *»> « { £ 7 y ? 

12 
PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Seeing Perfect, Having seen 

§ 153. Synopsis of To See. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present, I see Present perfect, I have seen 

Past, I saw Past perfect, I had seen 

Future, I shall see Future perfect, I shall have seen 

INFINITIVE. 

Present, To see Present perfect, To have seen 

Give the synopsis of to see. 



VERBS. 109 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present, See, or See thou or you 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect^ Seeing Perfect, Having seen 

PROGRESSIVE FORM OF THE VERB. 
§ 154. The progressive form of a verb is employed to 
denote the continuance of an action or state. It is com- 
posed of an imperfect participle and one of the forms of 
the verb to be ; as, " I am writing a letter ; " — " He is 
studying French." 

§ 155. Synopsis of To Write , in the Progressive Form. 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres., I am writing Pres. perf, I have been writing 

Past, I was writing Past perf., I had been writing 

Fut., I shall be writing FuL perf, I shall have been writing 

INFINITIVE. 

Present, To be writing Present perfect, to have been writing 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present, Be writing, or Be thou or you writing 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Writing Perfect, Having been writing 

The Auxiliary D o. 

§ 156. In sentences which express emphasis, interrogation, or 
negation, the present and past tenses of the indicative and sub- 
junctive modes, and the present imperative, are often formed by 
the aid of the auxiliary verb do ; as, " I do know it to be true ; " — 

" Do you intend to return to-morrow ? " — " I do not understand 
you." 

What is the progressive form of a verb ? Of what is it composed ? 
Give the synopsis of to write, in the progressive form. In what sentences is 
the auxiliary do employed ? Examples. What tenses are often formed by the 
aid of the auxiliary do ? 

10 



110 ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 157. Synopsis of To Hear, with the Auxiliary Do. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present, I do hear Past, I did hear 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present, If I do hear Past, If I did hear 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present, Do hear, or Do thou or you hear. 
Rem. — Do, as a principal verb, is conjugated like other irregular verbs. 

INTERROGATIVE FORM. 
§ 158. In interrogative sentences, when the verb has no auxil- 
iary, the nominative is placed after the verb ; when one auxiliary 
is used, the nominative is placed between the auxiliary and the 
principal verb ; and when more auxiliaries than one are employed, 
the nominative is placed after the first. 

§ 159. Synopsis of To Hear, used Interrogatively. 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres., Hear I ? or Do I hear ? Pres. per/., Have I heard ? 
Past, Heard I? or Did I hear ? Past per/., Had I heard ? 
Put, Shall I hear? Fut.perf., Shall I have heard ? 

NEGATIVE FORM. 
§ 160. A verb is conjugated negatively by introducing the ad- 
verb not in connection with it ; as, / know not ; I do not know ; I 
shall not have known ; I should not have been known, 

EXERCISES. 

§ 161. "I was." — "He had been." — "They think." — 
" We will return." — " Strive to improve." — " It is found." 
— " If we shall hear." — " Thou canst see." — " If he had 
been." — " If he would learn." — " Shall I read ? " — " Can 
it be understood ? " — " Honor thy father and thy mother." 

Give the synopsis of to hear, with the auxiliary do. What is the place of 
the nominative, in interrogative sentences ? Give the synopsis of the verb to 
hear, used interrogatively. How is a verb conjugated negatively ? Examples. 



VERBS. Ill 

Give the mode, tense, number, and person of each of the verbs in the 
foregoing sentences. Which of them are in the potential form of the indica- 
tive mode ? Which in the potential form of the subjunctive ? 

Mention a verb in the third person plural of the past perfect subjunc- 
tive. One in the present imperative. One in the present perfect infini- 
tive. One in the first person singular of the future perfect indicative. 
One in the third person singular of the present or future indicative, and poten- 
tial form. Mention three perfect participles. Three imperfect participles. 
Mention a verb in the third person singular of the present perfect indica- 
tive, and passive voice. Give the mode, tense, person, number, and voice 
of the following verbs : — will write ; — was written ; — began ; — to have 
been seen; — had heard. [A variety of similar directions should be 
added by the teacher.] 

Write sentences containing examples of verbs in the common form of 
the indicative and subjunctive modes; — in the potential indicative and po- 
tential subjunctive ; — in the imperative and infinitive modes ; — contain- 
ing examples of both imperfect and perfect participles ; — of verbs in the 
passive voice ; — containing examines of shall and will, correctly employed. 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

§ 162. An irregular verb is one that does not form its 
past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the 
present; as, see, saw, seen; go, zvent, gone. 

§ 163. The following list comprises nearly all the simple irregu- 
lar verbs in our language. 

Rem. 1. — When more forms than one are used in the past 
tense or perfect participle, that which stands first is to be preferred. 

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Present Past. Perf. Part. 

Abide abode abode 

Am or be , was been 

What is an irregular verb 1 Examples. Give the past tenses and per- 
fect participle of the verb abide ; — of the verb am ; — of the verb awake. 
[The teacher should proceed in this manner through the list, and repeat 
the exercise till the pupils are able to name with readiness the past tense 
and perfect participle of all the irregular verbs.] 



112 

Present. 

Awake 
( Bear (to bring forth) 
"J Bear (to sustain) for- 

Beat 

Begin 

Bend, un~ 

Bereave 

Beseech 

Bid,/or- 

Bind, un-, re- 

Bite 

Bleed 

Blow 

Break 

Breed 

Bring 

Build, re-, up- 

Burn 

Burst 

Buy 

Cast 

Catch 

Chide 

Choose 

{Cleave (to adhere) 
Cleave (to split) 
Cling 
Clothe 

Come, be-, over- , 
Cost 
Cr^ep 
Crow 
Cut 

DareJ (to venture) 
Deal 
Dig 

Do, un,- wis-, over- 
Draw, with- 
Dream 
Drink 
Drive 



ETYMOLOGY. 




Past. 


Perf. part. 


awoke, awaked 


awaked 


bore, bare* 


born 


bore, bare* 


borne 


beat 


beaten, beat 


began 


begun 


bent, bended 


bent 


bereft, bereaved 


bereft, bereaved 


besought 


besought 


bid, bade 


bidden, bid 


bound 


bound 


bit 


bitten, bit 


bled 


bled 


blew 


blown 


broke, brake* 


broken 


bred 


bred 


brought 


brought 


built, builded 


built, builded 


burned, burnt 


burned, burnt 


burst 


burst 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


caught, catchedf 


caught, catchedf 


chid 


chidden, chid 


chose 


chosen 


cleaved, clave* 


cleaved 


clove, cleft, clave* 


cloven, cleft 


clung 


clung 


clothed, clad 


clothed, clad 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


crept 


crept 


crowed, crew 


crowed 


cut 


cut 


dared, durst 


dared 


dealt, dealed 


dealt, dealed 


dug, digged 


dug, digged 


did 


done 


drew 


drawn 


dreamed, dreamt 


dreamed, dreamt 


drank 


drank,§ drunk 


drove, drave* 


driven 



* Obsolete. f Obsolescent. % Dare, to challenge, is regular. 

§ " From the disagreeable idea excited by the participle drunk, drank has 
been long in polite usage adopted instead of it." — Walker, the Lexicographer. 

" If we mistake not, drank is oftener used by good writers than drunk or 
drunken. 1 * ' — Fowle. 

Drank is also given as a perfect participle of drink by Sanborn, Webster, 
Goldsbury, Jenkins, Kirkham, Powers, Fletcher, E. W. Green, Frazee, 
Parkhurst, Badgley, Jones, Davis, Weld, Day, Whiting, Beall, and others. 

Examples : — " Bats and hideous birds had drank up the oil which nour- 
ished the perpetual lamp in the temple of Odin."— Johnson. " The cold 



Present. 

Dwell 
Eat 

Fall, be- 
Feed 
Feel 
Fight 
Find 
Flee 
Fling 
Fly 

Forsake 
Freeze 
Freight 
Get, be-, for- 
Gild 

Gird, oe-, tin-, en - 
Give, for-, mis- 
Go, /ore-, under- 
Grave, en- 
Grind 
Grow 
HangJ 
Have 
Hear, over- 
Heave 
Hew 
Hide 
Hit 

Hold, be-, with-, up- 
Hurt 
Keep 
Kneel 
Knit 

Know, fore- 
Lade§ (to load) 
Lay (to place), in- 
Lead, mis- 
Leave 
Lend 
Let 
Lie || (to recline) 



Past. 


Perf. Part. 


dwelt, dwelled 


dwelt, dwelled 


ate, eat 


eaten 


fell 


fallen 


fed 


fed 


felt 


felt 


fought 


fought 


found 


found 


fled 


fled 


flung 


flung 


flew 


flown 


forsook 


forsaken 


froze 


frozen 


freighted 


fraught, freighted 


got, gat* 


got, gotten 


gilded, gilt 


gilded, gilt 


girt, girded 


girt, girded 


gave 


given 


went 


gone 


graved 


graven, graved 


ground 


ground 


grew 


grown 


hung 


hung 


had 


had 


heard 


heard 


heaved, hove 


heaved, hoven* 


hewed 


hewn, hewed 


hid 


hidden, hid 


hit 


hit 


held 


held, holdenf 


hurt 


hurt 


kept 


kept 


kneeled, knelt 


kneeled, knelt 


knit, knitted 


knit, knitted 


knew 


known 


laded 


laden 


laid 


laid 


led 


led 


left 


left 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


lay 


lain 



113 



water that was drank." — Pres. Hopkins. "The man hath drank." — 
Southey. " Such a discourse could have emanated only from a mind 
which had drank deeplv from the fountains of experience, observation, and 
reflection." — Horace Mann. 

" It is a sultry day ; the sun has drank 
The dew that lay upon the morning grass." — Bryant. 
* Obsolete. f Obsolescent. 

X Hang, to take away life by hanging, is regular ; as, " Judas departed, 
and went and hanged himself." 

§ Lade, to dip, is regular. |J Lie, to deceive, is regular. 

10* 



114 


ETYMOLOGY. 




Present 


Past. 


Per/. Part 


Light 


lighted, lit 


lighted, lit 


Load, twi-, over- 


loaded 


loaded, loaden* 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Meet 


met 


met 


Mow 


mowed 


mown, mowed 


Pay, re- 


paid 


paid 


Penf (to enclose) 


penned, pent 


pent, penned 


Put 


put 


put 


Quit 


quit, quitted 


quitted, quit 


Read 


read 


read 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Ride 


rode, rid* 


rode, ridden, rid* 


Ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


Rise, a- 


rose 


risen 


Rive 


rived 


riven 


Run, out- 


ran 


run 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn, sawed 


Say, un-y gain. 


said 


said 


See, fore- 


saw 


seen 


Seek 


sought 
seethed, sod 


sought 


Seethe 


seethed, sodden 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Set, be- 


set 


set 


Sit (to rest) 


sat 


sat 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape, mis- 


shaped 


shaped, shapen 


Shave 


shaved 


shaved, shaven 


Shear 


sheared 


shorn, sheared 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shine 


shone, shined 


shone, shined 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot, over- 


shot 


shot 


Show or shew 


showed or shewed 


shown or shewn 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shrink 


shrunk, shrank 


shrunk 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Sing 


sang, sung 


sung 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


sunk 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


slidden, slid 


Sling 


slung, slang* 


slung 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Slit 


slit, slitted 


slit, slitted 


Smite 


smote 


smitten, smit 


' Sow! (to scatter) 


sowed 


sown, sowed 


* Obsolete. f Pen, 


to write, is regular. 


X Sctv, to stitch, is regular. 



VERBS. 



115 



Present. 
Speak, be- 
Speed 
Spell, mis- 
Spend, mis- 
Spill 
Spin 
Spit* 
Split 

Spread, over-, be- 
Spring 

Stand, urith-, under- 
Steal 
Stick 
Sting 
Stride, be- 
Strike 
String 
Strive 



Past 

spoke, spake* 

sped 

spelled, spelt 

spent 

spilt, spilled 

spun, span* 

spit, spat* 

split 

spread 

sprang, sprung 

stood 

stole 

stuck 

stung 

strode, strid 

struck 

strung 

strove 



Strow or Strew, be- strowed or strewed 



Swear, for- 
Sweat 
Sweep 
Swell 
Swim 

Swing [re-, over- 
Take, mis-, under-, be-, 
Teach, un,- mis- 
Tear 

Tell, /ore- 
Think, fee- 
Thrive 
Throw, over- 
Thrust 
Tread, re- 
Wax 
Wear 
Weave, un- 
Weep 
Wet 
Whet 
Win 

Wind, un- 
Work 
Wring 
Write 



swore, sware* 

sweat, sweated 

swept 

swelled 

swam, swum 

swung 

took 

taught 

tore, tare* 

told 

thought 

throve, thrived 

threw 

thrust 

trod 

waxed 

wore 

wove 

wept 

wet, wetted 

whetted, whet 

won 

wound 

worked, wrought 

wrung, wringed 

wrote, writ* 



Perf. Pan. 

spoken, spoke 

sped 

spelled, spelt 

spent 

spilt, spilled 

spun 

spit, spitten* 

split 



sprung 

stood 

stolen 

stuck 

stung 

stridden, strid 

struck, stricken* 

strung 

striven 
( strown, strowed 
I strewn, strewed 

sworn 

sweat, sweated 

swept 

swollen, swelled 

swum 

swung 

taken 

taught 

torn 

told 

thought 

thriven, thrived 

thrown 

thrust 

trodden, trod 

waxed, waxen 

worn 

woven, wove 

wept 

wet, wetted 

whetted, whet 

won 

wound 

worked, wrought 

wrung, wringed 

written, writ 



Rem. 2. — When the past tense is a monosyllable not ending in a sin- 
gle vowel, the second person singular of the solemn style is generally 



* Obsolete. 



X Spit, to put on a spit, is regular. 



116 ETYMOLOGY. 

formed by the addition of est ; as, heardest, fleddest, tookesi. Hadst, wast, 
saidst, and didst, are exceptions. 

Rem. 3. — Compound verbs (except welcome and behave, which 

are regular) are conjugated like the simple verbs from which they 

are formed ; as, see, saw, seen ; foresee, foresaw, foreseen. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

§ 164. A defective verb is one that cannot be used in 
all the modes and tenses. Thus, we cannot say, " I had 
could" " I shall can" etc. 

The defective verbs are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, 
would, must, ought, quoth, and beware. 

UNIPERSONAL VERBS. 

§ 165. A unipersonal* verb is one that is used only in 
the third person singular ; as, It hails ; It snows ; It 
behoves. 

Rem. — Methinks is an anomalous word, compounded of me and thinks. 
It is generally ranked with unipersonal verbs. 

EXERCISES. 

§ 166. Write sentences containing examples of irregular verbs; — of 
defective verbs ; — of unipersonal verbs. 

How are compound verbs conjugated ? What is a defective verb ? 
Enumerate the defective verbs. What is a unipersonal verb ? Examples. 

* The term impersonal is commonly applied to this class of verbs ; but 
a word which is always employed in one of the three grammatical persons, 
cannot, with any degree of propriety, be said to be without person. 

" As to the verbs which some grammarians have called impersonal, there 
are, in fact, no such things in the English language." — Cobbett. 

" This form is commonly called impersonal; but this denomination is in- 
correct and inadmissible, since these verbs are really in the third person." 
— De Sacy. 

Hiley denominates these verbs mo?wpersonal ; and De Sacy, Sutcliffe, 
and Morgan, call them verbs of the third person. The term unipersonal is 
adopted in the English grammars of Crane and Fowle, in Bachi's Italian 
Grammar, and in the French grammars of Bolmar and Bugard. 



ADVERBS. 117 



THE ADVERB. 

§ 167. An Adverb* is a word used to modify the sense 
of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, " He is 
not understood;" — "He speaks very fluently;" — "A 
remarkably diligent boy." 

Rem. 1. — Adverbs generally express in one word what would other- 
wise require two or more. Thus, now is used for at this time ; there, for 
in that place. 

Rem. 2. — Many adverbs are formed by the union of two or more 
words. Thus, indeed is composed of in and deed ; sometimes, of some and 
times ; herein, of here and in. 

§ 168. Adverbs may be divided into several classes, of which the 
following are the most important : — 

1. Adverbs of Manner; as, justly, rapidly. 

2. Of Place ; as, here, there. 

3. Of Time ; as, now, soon, lately. 

4. Of Degree ; as, more, less, hardly. 

5. Of Affirmation ; as, yes, certainly, doubtless. 

6. Of Negation ; as, not, no. 

Rem. 1. — Other classes might be enumerated, but they are less dis- 
tinctly marked ; and the different uses of adverbs are so numerous that a 
perfect classification is impracticable. 

Rem. 2. — The words to-day, to-night, to-morrow, and yesterday, though 
sometimes classed with adverbs, are properly nouns. 

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

§ 169. A conjunctive adverb is one that performs the office of a 
modifier and also of a connective ; as, " When Crusoe saw the sav- 
ages, he became greatly alarmed." 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 
§ 170. Many adverbs, like adjectives, admit of comparison. 

What is an adverb ? Examples. Name the principal classes of adverbs, 
and give examples of each. What is a conjunctive adverb? Examples. 

* The term adverb is derived from the two Latin words, ad and verfaim, 
which signify to a verb. 



118 ETYMOLOGY. 

Most of those ending in ly are compared by more and most ; as, 
wisely ', more wisely, most wisely. 

A few are compared by adding er and est ; as, soon, sooner, 
soonest 

The following are compared irregularly : — 

Far I ^ artner > farthest Little, less, least 

' \ further, furthest Much, more, most 

Well, better, best HI or badly, worse, worst. 

EXERCISES. 

§ 171. " The tree grows very rapidly." — " Iron is much 
harder than copper." — " Fortune sometimes favors those 
whom she afterwards destroys." — " Diligence is seldom un- 
rewarded." — "Truth never fears examination, however 
rigid it may be." — "Whatever is done willingly is done 
well." 

Point out the adverbs in the foregoing sentences. Give the class of each. 

Name three adverbs ending in ly; — three that do not end in ly. 

Write sentences containing examples of adverbs which modify verbs, 
adjectives, and other adverbs 

Write sentences containing adverbs of manner, place, time, degree, affirma- 
tion, and negation. 



THE PREPOSITION. 

§ 172. A Preposition* is a word used to express the 
relation of a noun or pronoun depending upon it, to some 
other word in the sentence ; as, " He went from Boston 
to Albany ; " — " Washington was the father of his 
country." 

How are adverbs ending in ly generally compared ? Examples. Give ex- 
amples of adverbs compared by er and est] — of adverbs compared irregularly. 
"What is a preposition ? Examples. 

* The term preposition is derived from the Latin word propositus, which 
signifies placed before. 



CONJUNCTION. 



119 



Rem. — In the foregoing examples, from expresses the relation be- 
tween ivent and Boston ; to, the relation between went and Albany ; and, 
of, the relation between father and country. 

§ 173. The following list of prepositions embraces most of those in 
common use : — 



About 


at 


by 


on 


under 


above 


athwart 


concerning 


over 


underneath 


across 


before 


down 


respecting 


until 


after 


behind 


during 


round 


unto 


against 


below 


except 


since 


up 


along 


beneath 


excepting 


through 


upon 


amid or 


beside or 


for 


throughout 


with 


amidst 


besides 


from 


till 


within 


among or 


between 


in 


to 


without 


amongst 


betwixt 


into 


towards 


worth* 


around 


beyond 


of 







THE CONJUNCTION. 

§ 174. A Conjunction^ is a word that is used to con- 
nect words or sentences ; as, " Seven and five are 
twelve ;" — " Straws swim on the surface; but pearls 
lie at the bottom." 

Rem. — The words belonging to this part of speech do not admit of a 
satisfactory division into classes .% 

+ What is a conjunction 1 Examples. 

* " Worth has the construction of a preposition, as it admits of the objec- 
tive case after it, without an intervening preposition." — Worcester's Diet. 

" The word worth is often followed by an objective, or a participle which 
it appears to govern ; as, ' If your arguments produce no conviction, they 
are worth nothing to me.' — * This is life indeed, life worth preserving.' 
It is not easy to determine to what part of speech worth here belongs. Dr. 
Johnson calls it an adjective, but says nothing of" the objective after it, which 
some suppose to be governed by of understood. In this supposition, it is 
gratuitously assumed, that worth is equivalent to worthy, after which of 
should be expressed ; as, c Whatsoever is worthy of their love, is worth their 
anger.' But, as worth appears to have no certain characteristic of an adjec- 
tive, some call it a noun, and suppose a double ellipsis ; as, ' The book is 
[of the] worth [of] a dollar.' This is still less satisfactory; and, as the 
whole appears to be mere guess-work, we see no good reason why worth is 
not a preposition, governing the noun or participle." — G. Brown. 

Worth is also classed with prepositions by Davis, Everest, Jenkins, Todd, 
Badgley, and others. 

t The term conjunction is derived from the Latin word conjungo, which 
signifies to join together. 

\ " The old distinction of conjunctions into copulative and disjunctive, 



120 



ETYMOLOGY. 



§ 175. The following is a list of the words most frequently employed 
as conjunctions : — 

And but neither than though 

although either nor that unless 

as for notwithstanding then wherefore 

because if or therefore yet 

both lest since 



THE INTERJECTION. 

§ 176. An Interjection* is an exclamatory word, used 
merely to express some passion or emotion. 

The following list of interjections includes most of those which are in 
general use : — 

Ah I alas I fie I ha I hallo ! indeed I hi 1 oh ! pshaw ! ho ! welcome ! 

Rem. — Other parts of speech are frequently used to perform the of- 
fice of interjections ; as, hark ! surprising 1 mercy ! 

EXERCISES. 
§ 177. " Of what use are riches without happiness ? " — 
" Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye 
even so to them." — " The sun, moon, and stars, admonish us 
of a superior and superintending power/' — " Righteousness 
exalteth a nation ; but sin is a reproach to any people." — - 
" Whence are thy beams, O sun ! " 



What is an interjection ? Examples. 



was founded in error, and is, happily, going into disuse in our grammars.' ■ 
— Frazee. 

" Conjunctions are generally divided into copulative and disjunctive; but 
more confusion than practical advantage seems to be derived from the divis- 
ion." — Goodenow. 

" I shall not take up time, and confuse the understanding of the learner, 
by dividing the words considered as conjunctions, into coptdative disjunc- 
tive, concessive, etc." — Lewis. 

" The common division of the words termed conjunctions, into copulative, 
as and; disjunctive, as either, or, neither, nor, etc.; concessive, as though, 
although, yet; adversative, as but, however ; causal, as for, because, since; 
illative, as therefore, wherefore, then ; conditional, as if; exceptive, as un- 
less ; deserves little consideration." — Grant. 

* The term interjection is derived from the Latin word interjectus, which 
signifies thrown between. 



DERIVATION. 121 

Point out the prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, in the fore- 
going sentences. 

Write sentences containing examples of prepositions, conjunctions, and 
interjections. 



DERIVATION. 

§ 178. Derivation is that part of Etymology which 
treats of the origin and primary signification of words. 

Rem. — The words of every cultivated language may be re- 
duced to groups or families, each of which is composed of words 
related to each other by identity of origin and similarity of signifi- 
cation. Thus, the words justice, justify, justification, justly, adjust, 
readjust, unjust, injustice, etc., are all kindred words, connected 
with the common parent just. So also, the words terrace, terra- 
queous, terrene, terrestrial, terrier, territory, inter, interment, disin- 
ter, Mediterranean, subterranean, etc., are all connected with their 
parent terra, the earth. 

§ 179. Words are divided into two general classes : — 
primitive and derivative. 

A primitive word is one that is not derived from any 
other word or words in the language ; as, man, obey. 

A derivative word is one that is formed from some 
primitive word or words ; as, manly, disobey. 

ORIGIN OF ENGLISH WORDS. 

§ 180. The basis of the English language is the Anglo- 
Saxon, which was introduced into England from Germany 
about the middle of the fifth century. 

Rem. — This original stock, besides being greatly modified by 
use, has received large additions from other languages. The inva- 

What is derivation ? To what may the words of every cultivated language 
be reduced? Examples. Into what two general classes are words divided 1 
What is a primitive word ? Examples. A derivative word % Examples. 
What is the basis of our language 1 
11 



3 22 ETYMOLOGY. 

sion of the Danes and Normans introduced many Danish and 
Norman-French words ; and a great number of Latin and Greek 
words have been since incorporated. We are also indebted for 
some of our words to the French, Italian, Spanish, German, and 
other languages. 

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 

§ 181. Most of the derivative words of our language, 
are formed by the aid of prefixes and suffixes. 

A prefix is a letter, syllable, or word, joined to the 
beginning of a word ; as, aloft, rebuild, overcome. 

A suffix is a letter or syllable, joined to the end of a 
w r ord ; as, stormy, proud/y, lawZm. 

Rem. 1 . — Most of the suffixes do not admit of precise and accurate 
definitions. 

Rem. 2. — Two or more prefixes or suffixes are sometimes employed 
in the same word ; as, rediscover, -powerfully. Rediscover contains two 
prefixes, re and dis ; and powerfully, two suffixes, ful and ly. 

Rem. 3. — Many of the roots or essential parts of the words before 
which prefixes are placed, are not used as distinct words in our language. 

Rem. 4. — When a prefix ends in a sound that will not readily 

unite with the sound of the word before which it is placed, the final 

letter of the prefix is oftened changed or omitted ; as, ignoble, for 

innoble ; coexist, for conexist. 

English or Saxon Prefixes. 

§ 182. The following are the prefixes of English or Saxon origin, 
with their significations : — 

1. A signifies on, in, or at; as, ashore, on shore ; asleep, in sleep. 

2. Be signifies upon, over, about, etc. ; as, fospeak, fodew, be- 
sprinkle. 

3. For signifies from or against ; as, jforbear, forbid. 

4. Fore signifies before : as, foresee, foretell. 

What changes has our language undergone since the period of the Anglo- 
Saxons 1 How are most English derivatives formed ? What is a prefix ? 
Examples. What is a suffix? Examples. What is sometimes done ivith 
the final letter of a prefix ? 

[Pupils should be required to give the signification of each of the 
prefixes, with copious illustrative examples.] 



LATIN PREFIXES. 123 

5. Mis signifies wrong, erroneous, or defective ; as, misconduct, 
misrule. 

6. Out signifies beyond, more, or exterior; as, outrun, owdive, 
outside. 

7. Over implies excess or superiority ; as, overdo, overcome. 

8. Tin denotes negation or privation ; as, uncertain, unbind. 

9. Under generally signifies beneath, inferior, or subordinate ; as, 
underlay, undermine. 

10. Up denotes elevation or subversion; as, upland, upset. 

11. TFif/i generally denotes opposition or separation ; as, wrc^- 
stand, un^draw. 

.Lafow Prefixes. 

§ 183. The following are the principal prefixes derived from the 
Latin, with their significations : — 

1. A, ab, or abs, signifies from ; as, avert, to turn from ; absolve, 
to release from ; abstract, to draw from. 

2. Ad signifies to or at; as, adjoin, to join to. In composition 
this prefix may become a, ac, of, ag, al, an, ap, or, as, or at ; as, 
ascend, accede, a/fix, aggrandize, a/lot, annex, appeal, arrest, 
assume, attract. 

3. Ante signifies before; as, antecedent, going before; antedilu- 
vian, before the Flood. 

4. Circum signifies round or about; as, circumnavigate, to sail 
round. 

5. Con signifies with or together ; as, convoke, to call together. 
This prefix takes also the forms co, cog, col, com, and cor; as, co- 
here, connate, coZlect, compress, correlative. 

6. Contra signifies against ; as, contradict, to speak against. This 
prefix is sometimes changed to counter; as, counteract. 

7. De generally signifies from or down ; as, deduce, to draw from ; 
debase, to bring down. 

8. Dis generally implies separation or disunion ; as, dissolve. It 
has sometimes a negative use ; as, disapprove. Dis takes also the 
forms di and dif; as, diverge, diffuse. 

9. E or ex signifies out, out of, or from ; as, eject, to cast out ; 
evade, to escape from. This prefix takes also the forms ec and ef; 
as, eccentric, e/face. 

10. Extra signifies beyond, or more than; as, extraordinary. 



124 ETYMOLOGY, 

11. In , before an adjective, has a negative signification, nearly 
equivalent to not; as, inactive, not active ; insecure, not secure. 
Before a verb, in signifies in, into, or against ; as, insert, to place in ; 
indict, to speak against. This prefix takes also the forms en, im, ig, 
il, ir, and em; as, engrave, implacable, ignoble, i/legal, irradiate, 
emboss. 

12. Inter signifies between or among ; as, intervene, to come be- 
tween ; intersperse, to scatter among. 

13. Ob generally signifies against; as, o&struct, to build against. 
Ob takes also the forms oc, of, and op; as, occur, offend, oppose. 

14. Per generally signifies through or by; as, pervade, to pass 
through ; jt?erchance, by chance. 

15. Pre or proz signifies before; as, precede, to go before. 

16. Pro signifies for, forth, or forward ; as, joronoun, for a noun ; 
provoke, to call forth ; promote, to move forward. 

17. Re signifies again or back; as, reenter, to enter again; re- 
call, to call back. 

18. Se denotes departure or separation ; as, secede, to withdraw 
from. 

19. Sub signifies under; as, subscribe, to write under. Sub has 
also the forms sue, suf sug, sup, and sus ; as, succeed, suffuse, sug- 
gest, support, suspend. 

20. Super generally signifies beyond, above, or over ; as, super- 
natural, beyond nature ; supervise, to oversee. This prefix often 
becomes sur ; as, surcharge. 

21. Trans signifies over or beyond ; as, transfer, to carryover; 
transatlantic, beyond the Atlantic. 

Greek Prefixes, 

§ 184. The following are some of the principal prefixes derived 
from the Greek, with their significations : — 

1. A or an denotes privation, and is generally equivalent to with- 
out ; as, atheist, without a God ; anarchy, without government. 

2. Anti signifies against ; as, anft'ehristian, against Christianity. 

3. Mono signifies single ; as, monosyllable, one syllable. 

4. Poly signifies many ; as, polysyllable, a word of many syllables. 

5. Syn signifies with or together ; as, synthesis, putting together. 
Syn takes also the forms sy, syl, and sym; as, system, syZlogism, 
sympathy. 



PART III. 



SYNTAX. 

§ 185. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences, 
according to the established laws of speech. 

§ 186. A sentence is an assemblage of words making 
complete sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds ; — simple and compound. 

A simple sentence is a sentence that contains only one 
nominative and one finite verb ; as, " The sun rises in the 
east." 

A compound sentence is one that contains two or more 
simple sentences ; as, " Industry procures competence, 
and frugality preserves it ; " — " He fills, he bounds, con- 
nects, and equals all." 

The simple sentences which unite to form a compound 
sentence, are called members or clauses. 

§ 187. The principal parts of a simple sentence are the 
subject or nominative, the verb, and the object. Thus, 
in the sentence, " Temperance promotes health," tem- 
perance is the subject, promotes the verb, and health the 
object. 

Rem. — A sentence in which the verb is intransitive, has only 
two principal parts, the subject and the verb ; as, u He runs." 

Of what does syntax treat ? What is a sentence \ Into what two 
general classes are sentences divided ? What is a simple sentence % 
Examples. A compound sentence ? Examples. What are the simple 
sentences embraced in a compound sentence called % What are the 
principal parts of a simple sentence 1 Illustrate. What are the princi- 
pal pails of a sentence in which the verb is intransitive? Examples. 
11* 



126 SYNTAX. 

§ 188. A Phrase is a short expression, or form of speech; as, 
" At length ; " — " Hand in hand." 

§ 189. Words used to explain or modify other words, are called 
adjuncts. This term embraces all the words of a simple sentence 
except the principal parts. Many adjuncts are composed of two 
or more words ; as, " Printing was invented in the fifteenth century." 
The whole phrase, " in the fifteenth century," is here an adjunct 
of was invented. The and fifteenth are also adjuncts of century. 

§ 190. An Idiom is a form of expression peculiar to a language ; 

as, " Bear with me ; " — " They came forward, to a man* 9 

Rem. — The idioms of a language are not governed by the ordinary 
rules of syntax. A knowledge of them is therefore best acquired by ob- 
serving carefully the phraseology of the best speakers and writers. 

§ 191. Agreement is the correspondence of one word 
with another, in gender, number, person, case, or form. 

§ 192. Government is the power which one word has 
over another, in determining its state. 



§ 193. RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Rule I. — Nominatives. 
The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative 
case ; as, " The moon shines with borrowed light ; " — 
" Thou shalt not steal." 

Rule IT. — Apposition. 
A noun or pronoun used to identify or explain another 
noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case ; 
as, " The salutation of me, Paul; " — " Xenophon, the 
soldier and historian, was a disciple of Socrates." 

WJiat is a phrase ? Examples. What is an adjunct ? Examples. What 
is an idiom ? Examples. What is agreement ? What is government ? 
What is the rule respecting nominatives % Examples. What is the 
rule respecting apposition ? Examples. 



RULES. 127 

Rule III. — Possessives. 
The possessive case is governed by the noun which de- 
notes the thing possessed ; as, " The sun's rays ; " — 
" My native land." 

Rule IV. — Independent Case. 
When a noun or pronoun is used absolutely, having no 
dependence on any other word, it is put in the indepen- 
dent case ; as, " These are thy glorious works, Parent of 
good ; " — " He that hath ears to hear, let him hear." 

Rule V. — Pronouns. 

Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in gender, 
number, and person ; as, " On the seventh day, God 
ended his work which he had made ; " — " Every tree is 
known by its fruit." 

Rule VI. — Pronouns. 
When two or more words denoting different objects are 
taken conjointly, forming one common antecedent, the 
pronoun agreeing with them must be in the plural number ; 
as, " Virtue and good breeding render their possessors 
truly amiable." 

Rule VLI. — Pronouns. 

When two or more antecedents in the singular, are so 
connected that the pronoun agrees with each term sepa- 
rately, or with one of them exclusively, the pronoun should 
be in the singular number. 

Respecting possessives ? Examples. Respecting the independent 
case ? Examples. Respecting the agreement of pronouns ? Examples. 
Respecting the agreement of a pronoun with two or more words denot- 
ing different objects, taken conjointly ! Examples. What is the rule 
respecting the agreement of a pronoun with each of two or more antece- 
dents taken separately, or with one of them exclusively 1 



128 SYNTAX. 

Examples : — " Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which 
moves merely as it is moved ; " — " He, and no one else, was allowed 
to follow his inclinations ; " — " Every good act and every good pur- 
pose will receive its reward." 

Rule VIII. — Adjectives. 
Adjectives belong to the nouns or pronouns which 
they qualify or define ; as, " A good man; " — " These 
things." 

Rule IX. — Verbs. — Agreement. 
A verb must agree with its nominative in number and 
person ; as, " I go ; " — " Thou seest ; " — " He hears" 

Rule X. — Verbs. — Agreement. 
When two or more nominatives denoting different ob- 
jects are taken conjointly, forming one common subject, 
the verb agreeing with them should be in the plural num- 
ber ; as, " Socrates and Plato were eminent philoso- 
phers;" — "The air, the earth, the water, teem with 
delighted existence." 

Rule XI. — Verbs. — Agreement. 
When two or more singular nominatives are so con- 
nected that the verb agrees with each subject separately, 
or with one of them to the exclusion of the others, the 
verb should be in the singular number. 

Examples : — " Duty, and not interest, was his constant rule of action ; * 
— "Nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain, breaks the serene of heaven ; " — 
" Neither astrology, nor alchemy, deserves the name of a science : " — 
"In every tribe, superstition, or gratitude, or fortune, has exalted a 
particular family ; " — " Caesar, as well as Cicero, was remarkable for 

Examples. What is the general rule for adjectives ? Examples. The 
rule respecting the agreement of verbs ? Examples. Respecting the 
agreement of a verb with two or more nominatives denoting different ob- 
jects taken conjointly ? Examples, 



RULES. 129 

his eloquence ; " — " Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the 

glory." 

" Every tongue and every eye 

Does homage to the passer-hy." 

Kule XII. — Verbs. — Government. 
Transitive verbs govern the objective case ; as, " I 
have heard him ; " — " Honor thy father and thy mother" 

Kule XIII. — Same Case. 
Intransitive and passive verbs have the same case after 
them as before them, when both words refer to the same 
person or-thing ; as, " Society is the true sphere of human 
virtue;" — "They wished him to be their king;" — 
"He soon became the leader of his party;" — "He 
was chosen librarian ; " — "Homer has been styled the 
prince of poets." 

Rule XIV. — Government of the Infinitive. 
The infinitive mode may be governed by a verb, a noun, 
or an adjective ; as, " Strive to improve ; " — " I am in 
haste to return; " — "The ship was ready to sail" 

Rule XV. — Tenses. 
In the use of verbs, those tenses should be employed 
which express correctly the sense intended. 

Rule XVI. — Participles. 
Participles relate to nouns or pronouns ; as, " He stood 
leaning on his spade, and gazing at the brightness in the 

west." 

What is the rule respecting two or more single nominatives so con- 
nected that the verb agrees with each separately, or with one to the ex- 
clusion of the others ? Examples. What is the rule respecting transi- 
tive verbs ? Examples. Respecting the same case ? Examples. Re- 
specting the government of infinitives ? Examples. What is the rule 
respecting tenses ! What is the rule respecting participles 1 Examples, 



130 SYNTAX. 

Rule XVII. — Adverbs. 
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs ; 
as, "Men frequently contend for trifles;" — "It was 
very thankfully received." 

Rule XVLU. — Conjunctions. 
Conjunctions connect words or sentences ; as, " Idle- 
ness and ignorance are the parents of many vices ;" — 
" He fled because he was afraid." 

Rule XIX. — Prepositions. — Relation. 
Prepositions connect words, and show the relation be- 
tween them. 

Examples : — " He travelled for pleasure ; " — " They were destitute op 
food;" — " This is an age of improvement; " — " Ambassadors were 
sent previously to the declaration." 

Rule XX. — Prepositions, — Government. 
Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, " They 
came to us in the spirit of kindness ; " — " From him 
that is needy, turn not away." 

Rule XXI. — Interjections. 
Interjections have no grammatical relation to the other 
words of a sentence ; as, " These were delightful days; 
but, alas ! they are no more." 

Rule XXLI. — General Rule. 
The different parts of a sentence should be made to 
harmonize with one another; and the several clauses 
should be so constructed and arranged as to express 

What is the rule respecting adverbs ? Examples. Respecting con- 
junctions ? Examples. Respecting the relation expressed by preposi- 
tions 1 Examples. What do prepositions govern ? Examples. What 
is the rule respecting interjections ? Examples. What is the general 
rule of svntax ? 



RUI>ES. 131 

clearly the various relations, connections, and dependences 
intended, according to the best usages of the language. 

PARSING. 
§ 194. Parsing is an explanation of the properties and 
offices of words, according to the principles of grammar. 

ORDER OP PARSING. 

A Noun, and why ? — Common or Proper, and why ? — 
Gender, and why ? — Person, and why ? — Number, and 
why ? — Case, and why ? — Disposal, and Rule. 

An Adjective, and why ? — Class, and why ? — If a de- 
scriptive adjective, give the Degree of Comparison, with the 
reason. — Compare it. — Disposal, and Rule. 

In parsing an Article, the pupil should tell whether it is 
Definite or Indefinite, and why ; to what it belongs ; and as- 
sign the Rule. See Models for Parsing, under Rule VIII. 

A Pronoun, and why ? — Class, and why ? — Gender, 
Number, and Person, and why ? — [If a Relative Pronoun, 
point out its antecedent, and tell what clauses are connected 
by it.] — Case, and why ? — Decline it, if declinable. — Dis- 
posal, and Rule. 

A Verb, and why ? — Regular or Irregular, and why ? — 
Principal parts. — Transitive or Intransitive, and why ? — 
[If transitive, tell whether it is in the Active or Passive 
Voice.] — Mode, and why ? — Tense, and why ? — Person 
and Number, and why ? — Disposal, and Rule. 

In parsing a Participle, the following order should be ob- 
served : — A Participle, and why ? — Principal parts of the 
verb. — Perfect or Imperfect, and why ? — Transitive or 
Intransitive, and why ? — [If Transitive, tell whether it is 
in the Active or Passive Voice.] — Disposal, and Rule. 

An Adverb, and why ? — Class, and why ? — Disposal, and 
Rule. 



What is parsing ? 



132 SYNTAX. 

A Preposition, and why ? — Relation expressed, and Rule. 
A Conjunction, and why ? — Connection, and Rule. 
An Interjection, and why ? — Rule. 

[The Order of Parsing here given, and the Models of Parsing intro- 
duced in connection with the Exercises, are inserted for the guidance of 
young learners. It will often be found expedient, in parsing, to omit the 
etymological modifications of a word, and give only its syntax or construc- 
tive office in the sentence. Advanced classes should attend less to the 
common Order of Parsing, and more to the Analysis of language. It is 
hoped that teachers will take special pains to render the exercises in pars- 
ing as intellectual as possible. Pupils should be taught that correct pars- 
ing always requires correct thinking; and that it is indispensably necessary 
for them to understand thoroughly the sense of any piece of writing before 
they attempt to parse it. They should be required to explain the more 
difficult passages, by transposing the order of the words, or by expressing 
the sense in their own language ; but the words employed by the author 
should be preserved unaltered in parsing. See remarks prefixed to §§ 233 
and 245.] 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 
Rule I. — Nominatives. 

§ 195. The subject of a finite verb must be in the nom- 
inative case ; as, " The moon shines with borrowed 
light ; " — " Thou shalt not steal." 

Remark 1. — A verb in the infinitive mode, & sentence, or a 

phrase, sometimes performs the office of a noun or pronoun in the 

nominative ; as, " To err is human ; " — " That one man should be 

punished for the crimes of another is unjust." 

Rem. 2. — In poetry, the nominative is sometimes omitted ; as, "Lives 
there who loves his pain 1 " When the verb is in the imperative mode, 
the nominative is frequently omitted, both in prose and poetry ; as, " Take 
care of the minutes, and the hours will take care of themselves." 

Rem. 3. — In declaratory and conditional sentences, the nomina- 
tive usually precedes the verb ; but in interrogative and imperative 
sentences, the nominative most commonly follows either the princi- 
pal verb or an auxiliary. 

What is the rule respecting nominatives 1 Examples. What is some- 
times used to supply the place of a noun or pronoun in the nominative ? Ex- 
amples. What position does the nominative usually take in declaratory and 
conditional sentences ? Interrogative and imperative sentences ? 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 133 

Observation 1. — The nominative is also placed after the verb: — 
1. When a sentence is introduced by the expletive adverb there; as, 
" There are many good pieces in this collection." 2. When a supposition 
is expressed without the use of the conjunction if; as, " Were there no 
difference, there would be no choice." 3. When a sentence is introduced 
by neither or nor, not used as a correspondent to another conjunction ; as, 
" The eye which saw him shall see him no more, neither shall his place 
any more behold him." 

Obs. 2. — When who, which, or what, is used as the subject of the verb 
in an interrogative sentence, and also when which or what is used as an 
adjective belonging to the subject, the nominative precedes the verb; as, 
" Who is there to oppose him ? " — " What object will be accomplished ? " 

Obs. 3. — Besides the cases here enumerated, there are many others in 
which the nominative may either precede or follow the verb, and for which 
no definite rules can be given. 



Rule II. — Apposition. 
§ 196. A noun or pronoun used to identify or explain 
another noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the 
same case; as, " The salutation of me, Pawl;" — 
" Xenophon, the soldier and historian, was a disciple of 
Socrates." 

Rem. 1. — Apposition signifies adding to, and denotes that another 
name is added for the same person or thing. 

Rem. 2. — A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence 
or phrase ; as, " He permitted me to make free use of his valuable 
library ; — a kindness which I shall always remember with grat- 
itude." 

Rem. 3. — A noun denoting a whole is sometimes followed by 
two or more words in apposition with it, denoting the parts of 
which it is composed ; as, " They travelled in company, some on 
horseback, some in carriages, and others on foot." 

Rem. 4. — A distributive term in the singular number, or a word 
in the singular, modified by a distributive, is often put in apposition 
with a noun or pronoun in the plural ; as, " They have fallen, each 
in his field of glory." — Cowper. " They fled, every man into his 
tent."— 1 Sam. 4: 10. 

What is the rule respecting apposition ? Examples. With what be- 
sides a noun or pronoun is a noun sometimes in apposition ? Examples. 
What remark is made respecting words deywting the several parts of a whole. ? 
Examples. What is the remark respecting a distributive term in the singular 
number, or a word in the singular modified by a distributive ? Examples. 
12 



134 SYNTAX. 

Rem. 5. — In the phrases one another and each other, the words 
one and each have a construction similar to that described in the 
last Remark ; as, " They confide in each other ;" — " Bear ye one 
another's burdens." In the former of these sentences, each is in 
apposition with they, and other is governed by the preposition in. 
In the latter, one is in apposition with ye, and another's is governed 
by burdens. 

Rem. 6. — Two or more proper names, applied to the same in- 
dividual, may be regarded as forming one complex noun; as, 
u Thomas Jefferson was the third president of the United States." 

Rem. 7. — Anomalous expressions sometimes occur, in which a noun 
used without the sign of possession, is put in apposition with a noun or 
pronoun in the possessive case ;* as, "This did not prevent John's being 
acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated Duke of Normandy." — Henry's 
Hist, of Brit. "His eminence as a judge was great and undeniable." — 
Brougham. See Rule 18, Rem. 10. 

Rule III. — Possessives. 

§ 197. The possessive case is governed by the noun 
which denotes the thing possessed; as, "The sun's rays;" 
— " My native land." See § 94, Kern. 5. 

Rem. 1. — When the governing word is rendered obvious by the use 
of the possessive, it is frequently omitted ; as, "I called at the booksell- 
er's;" that is, "at the booksellers store." 

Rem. 2. — When the thing possessed belongs to two or more 

possessors conjointly, the sign is annexed to the last only of the 

possessive nouns ; as, " Mason and Dixon's line ; " — " Andrews and 

Stoddard's Grammar;" — " Allen, Morrill, and Wardwell's store." 

But when different things of the same name belong severally to 

Explain and illustrate the construction of the phrases, each other and one 
another ? What is said of two or more proper names, applied to the same 
individual ? Examples. What is the rule respecting possessives ? Ex- 
amples. What use is made of the sign when the thing possessed belongs to 
two or more possessors conjointly ? Examples. What, when different things 
of the same name belong severally to two or more possessors ? Examples. 

* Grammarians differ widely in opinion respecting the proper mode of 
parsing words of this class. In the sentence quoted from Henry's History, 
G. Brown and Goldsbury would make the word Duke a possessive, in appo- 
sition with John's. Sanborn would make it independent. Butler would 
call it a predicate nominative. Hart would say that Duke is used in the 
nominative indefinite. Bullions would make it an objective. 



"fcTOUNS AXD PRONOUXS. 135 

two or more possessors, the sign should be annexed to each posses- 
sive ; as, " Webster's, Worcester's, and Smart's Dictionary ; " that is, 
Webster's Dictionary, Worcester's Dictionary, and Smart's Dic- 
tionary. 

Rem. 3. — Two or more words closely united, and forming 
essentially one complex noun, have the sign annexed to the last 
only ; as, " Henry the Eighth's reign ; " — " Thomas Jefferson's ad- 
ministration ; " — " John the Baptist's head." 

Rem. 4. — When two or more possessive nouns in apposition are 
governed by a noun expressed, the governing word is usually plac- 
ed after the others, and the sign annexed to the last only of the 
possessives ; as, " For David my servants sake." 

Rem. 5. — When an explanatory term consisting of several words, or 
a number of explanatory terms, are subjoined to a noun in the posses- 
sive, and the governing word is understood, the sign is generally annexed 
to the first possessive only; as, " I left the book at Johnson's, a respecta- 
ble bookseller, and a worthy man." 

Rem. 6. — Other cases sometimes occur for which no certain rule can 
be given. Thus, we may say, " I called at Mr. Brown, the jeweller's," or 
" I called at Mr. Brown's the jeweller ; " since both these forms are au- 
thorized by usage. 

Rem. 7. — When a noun or pronoun, preceding a participle used 

as a noun, is properly in the possessive case, the sign of possession 

should not be omitted. 

Correct Examples : — "A great public, as well as private advan- 
tage, arises from every one's devoting himself to that occupation 
which he prefers, and for which he is specially fitted." — Wayland, 
" This is known by the moon's always keeping nearly the same face 
towards us." — Olmsted. 

False Syntax : — " Such is the advantage we receive from the 
chain being composed of so many links, the spine of sq many 
bones." — Foley. "There was a chance of him recovering his 
senses." — Macaulay. " A contemporary scholar speaks of the 
author being unknown." — Thomas Campbell. 

What, when two or more words closely united, form one complex noun ? 
Examples. What is said respecting two or more possessives in apposition, 
governed by a noun expressed ? Examples. What care should be observed 
respecting possessives before participial nouns ? Examples. Correct the false 
syntax, and show why it is false. 



136 SYNTAX. 

Rem. 8. — When we wish to mention a part only of the objects pos- 
sessed, we should employ both the preposition of and the possessive case ; 
as, " An anecdote of Dr. Franklin's ;" — " These poems are as good as 
some of Dana's." 

Rem. 9. — An explanatory clause should never be inserted between a 
possessive noun and the word by which it is governed. The following 
sentence is faulty in this respect : — " She began to extol the farmer's, as 
she called him, excellent understanding." It should be, " She began to 
extol the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him." 



Rule IV. — Independent Case. 

§ 198. When a noun or pronoun is used absolutely, 
having no dependence on any other word, it is put in the 
independent case; as, "These are thy glorious works, 
Parent of good ; " — "He that hath ears to hear, let him 
hear." 

Rem. 1. — This rule applies, — 

(1) When a direct address is made, and the noun or pronoun has 
no dependence on the rest of the sentence ; as, " The fault, dear 
Brutus, is not in our stars, but in ourselves." This is the case in- 
dependent by address. 

(2) When a noun or pronoun is joined with a participle having 
no dependence on any other word ; as, " The sun having risen, we 
departed on our journey." This is the case independent with a 
participle. 

(3) When a noun is used to introduce the subject of remark, 
and then left independent of the rest of the sentence ; as, " The 
Pilgrim fathers, where are they ? " This is the case independent 
by pleonasm.* 

Obs. 1. — This redundant use of the noun or pronoun is generally in- 
elegant, but in poetry and animated prose it is sometimes employed with 
happy effect. 

Obs. 2. — A plural term is sometimes used emphatically after a series 

What is the rule respecting the independent case 1 Examples. Name 
the several circumstances under which nouns and pronouns are used indepen- 
dently, and give examples of each kind. 

* For several of the divisions embraced in this classification of words in 
the independent case, the author is indebted to the excellent treatise of 
Mr. G. Brown. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 137 

of words or phrases comprehended under it ; as, "Ease, fortune, life, all 
were squandered." — Bancroft. In this sentence, the words ease, fortune, 
and life, may be regarded as independent by pleonasm. So also, in the 
following sentence, the infinitive verbs may be regarded as independent 
or absolute by pleonasm : — " To be murdered, to be tortured, to be robbed, to 
be sold into slavery, to be exposed to the outrages of gangs of foreign ban- 
ditti calling themselves patriots, — these are evidently evils from which 
men of every religion and men of no religion wish to be protected." — 
Macaulay. 

(4) When a noun or pronoun is used to express an exclamation ; 
as, " Oh, the miseries of war ! " This is the case independent by 
exclamation. 

(5) When a noun, having no dependence on any other word, is 
used to express a name or title, as, " The Sketch Book," " Day's 
Algebra ; " or to denote time, measure, distance, direction, or place, 
as, " He left the country ten years ago," " The tree was found to 
be eighty feet in height," "He walked twelve miles'* This is the 
case independent by ellipsis. 

Obs. — This class of words in the independent case is not intended to 
include those nouns before which a preposition is properly understood. 
In all such examples the preposition should be supplied in parsing, and 
the noun raa^e to depend upon it in the objective case. There are, how- 
ever, instances in which the noun is not properly dependent on a prepo- 
sition either expressed or implied ; and examples of this class should be 
put in the independent case.^ 

Eem. 2. — A noun is sometimes used indefinitely after an infinitive or 
participle ; as, " To be the slave of passion is of all slavery the most 
wretched." The word slave, in this sentence, may be parsed by Rule 4, 
in the independent case. See Rule 8, Rem. 14. 



§ 199. EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

[It is hoped that teachers will not fail to insist on a thorough perform- 
ance of these exercises. Rules may be recited very fluently without be- 
ing understood ; but an application of them in the construction of sen- 

* " In expressing distance or duration, either in time or space, we use the 
noun absolutely ; as, ' He walked ten miles.;'* — ■ He stood three hours.'' " 
— Latham. 

" Nouns signifying the time when, and time how long, weight, measure^ 
and distance, are put in the objective case absolute." — Ainsivorth. 

"Lowth, followed by the whole tribe of writers on this subject, alleges 
some prepositions to be understood before these expressions of time ; but 
this is a palpable error, arising from preconceived notions of the necessity 
of such words. The fact is otherwise. All these peculiar phrases are 
idiomatic ; and the remains of the early state of our language." — Webster. 

See also Smart, J. M. Putnam, Frazee, Goldsbury, Webber, Flower, 
Allen and Cornweli, Cooper, Davenport, and Nutting. 

12* 



138 SYNTAX. 

tences, requires a careful attention to principles, while it also aids the 
learner in forming an accurate style of writing. See Oral Instruction.] 

Write sentences containing nouns and pronouns in the nomina- 
tive ; — containing a verb in the infinitive, a sentence, or a phrase, 
used as the subject of a verb ; — nouns and pronouns in apposition 
with other words ; — nouns and pronouns in the possessive case ; — 
two or more possessives, governed by a noun denoting joint posses- 
sion ; — two or more possessives, governed by nouns denoting differ- 
ent objects of the same name ; — two or more words, forming essen- 
tially one complex noun in the possessive ; — two or more possessives 
in apposition, governed by a noun expressed ; — a noun or pronoun 
in the possessive, preceding a participial noun ; — a noun or pronoun 
in the case independent by address ; — in the case independent with 
a participle ; — in the case independent by pleonasm ; — in the case 
independent by exclamation ; — in the case independent by ellipsis. 

Rule Y. — Pronouns. 

§ 200. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in 
gender, number, and person ; as, " On the seventh day, 
God ended his work which he had made;" — "Every 
tree is known by its fruit." 

Rem. 1. — The neuter pronoun it is one of the most general 
terms in the language. It may be used, — 

(1) To represent a noun in the plural number; as, " It was the 
heretics that first began to rail." 

(2) To represent a noun in the masculine or feminine gender ; 
as, il It is sl brother of the prince ; " — tl It is the queen." 

(3) To represent a noun in the first or second person ; as, " It 
is I;"— "Is & you?" 

(4) To represent a sentence or phrase ; as, " It is impossible to 
please all men ; " — " It is observed by Seneca, that prosperity 
greatly obstructs the knowledge of ourselves. 9 * 

(5) To denote some state or condition ; as, " It rains ;" — " Has 
it come to this ? " 

What is the rule respecting the agreement of pronouns I Examples. 
Enumerate the peculiar uses of the pronoun it, and give examples of each. 



PRONOUNS. 139 

(6) It is sometimes employed in a vague or indefinite sense ; as, 
" During this time, they had lorded it over the land with absolute 
sway." — Prescott. 

Obs. — In most of the cases here enumerated, it is an inceptive pro- 
noun, used to form an easy and agreeable introduction to a sentence. 

Rem. 2. — The personal pronoun them should never be employed 
as an adjective. We should say, "Bring me those books;" — not 
" them books." 

Rem. 3. — When two or more personal pronouns in the second 

person, are employed in the same connection, they should be made 

to correspond in style. (§§ 111, 112.) The following passage is 

therefore inaccurate : — 

" Enjoy your dear wit, and gay rhetoric 
Thathath so well been taught her dazzling fence ; 
Thou art not fit to hear thyself convinced." — Milton. 

Your should be thy, to correspond with thou and thyself. 

False Syntax. 
" Ere you remark another's sin, 
Bid thy own conscience look within." — Gay. 
" What strange events can strike with more surprise 
Than those which lately struck thy wondering eyes ? 
Yet, taught by these, confess th' Almighty just, 
And where you can't unriddle, learn to trust." — Parnell. 

Rem. 4. — The use of different relatives in the same sentence referring 
to the same antecedent, should generally be avoided. The following sen- 
tence is faulty in this respect : — "I have amused myself with remarking 
some of the motley characters that have thus usurped the ancient abode 
of royalty, and who seem as if placed here to give a farcical termination 
to the drama of human pride." — Irving. Who should be changed to 
that to correspond with that in the preceding clause. 

Rem. 5. — Monarchs and editors of periodical publications often 
employ the plural form of a pronoun in the first person, instead of 
the singular ; as, " We, taking into our royal consideration the vari- 
ous disorders and abuses," etc. — " We charge you, on allegiance 
to our self ; " — " We cheerfully admit the following communication 

What improper use is sometimes made of the pronoun them ? Illustrate. 
What rule should be observed, when two or more personal pronouns in the second 
person are employed in the same connection ? Coirect the false syntax, and 
show why it is false. What form of expression is peculiar to sovereigns and 
editors of periodical publications ? Examples, 



140 SYNTAX. 

into our columns, but do not hold our self responsible for the senti- 
ments which it embodies." 

Rem. 6. — The relative who is applied to persons, and 
ivhich to irrational animals and inanimate things ; as, 
" Homer, who wrote the Iliad ; " — " The man whom we 
saw ;" — " The horse which Alexander rode ; " — *? The 
rain which fell." 

Obs. — The pronoun who should not be used to represent a name 
which is taken as a word merely. Thus, " The court of queen Elizabeth, 
who was but another name for prudence and economy," should be, " The 
court of queen Elizabeth, whose name was but another word for prudence 
and economy." 

Rem. 7. — The pronoun that is applied either to persons or 
things ; as, " He that hath knowledge, spareth his words ; " — " The 
bird that sung so sweetly ; " — " The house that was built last year." 

Obs. 1. — That should be employed in preference to who or 
which, — 

(1) When its use will prevent an unpleasant repetition of either 
of these pronouns ; as, " Who that is not blinded by prejudice will 
believe this report ? " 

(2) When persons form a part only of the antecedent ; as, " The 
men and things that he saw." 

(3) After a collective noun denoting a body of persons; as, 

" The army that was defeated was composed of veteran soldiers." 

Obs. 2. — There are other cases in which that may be employed or not, 
according to the taste of the writer ; as, " He that formed the eye, shall he 
not see T" — Ps. 94 : 9. " He who plants an oak, looks forward to future 
ages, and plants for posterity." — Irving. " There is a serene and settled 
majesty in woodland scenery, that enters into the soul, and dilates and 
elevates it, and fills it with noble inclinations." — Ibid. 

Rem. 8. — The possessive whose is applied to both persons and 

things ; as, " Franklin, whose name will ever be remembered ; " — 

" Virtue, whose reward is lasting ; " — " Frowning rocks, whose 

lofty summits." See § 117, Note. 

What distinction is observed in the use of who and which ? Select 
several examples of each from other works. To what is the pronoun that 
applied ? Examples. When is that employed in preference to who or which 1 
Examples of each class. To what is the possessive whose applied ? Ex- 
amples. 



PRONOUNS. 141 

Rem. 9. — When two or more pronouns, or nouns and pronouns, 
of different persons, are closely united in the same construction, 
the word which is in the second person should generally be placed 
first, and that in the first person, last ; as, " You and Charles, and 
I, were engaged in the same transaction ; " — " You and your friend 
were absent ; " — " My brother and I were detained." 

Rem. 10. — The word what should not be used for the conjunction that, 
nor that for the compound relative what. The following sentences are 
faulty in this respect : — " They would not believe but what he was guil- 
ty ;" — " We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen." 

Rem. 11. — Relatives should be so placed as to prevent all ambi- 
guity in regard to the words which they are intended to represent. 
The following sentence is therefore objectionable : — " He is un- 
worthy the confidence of a fellow-being that disregards the laws of 
his Maker." Corrected : — "He that disregards the laws of his 
Maker, is unworthy of the confidence of a fellow-being." 

Obs. — " I am the man who command you." This sentence is ambig- 
uous, and may be corrected in two different ways. If who is intended to 
refer to 7, we should say, ' I who command you, am the man." But if 
who is intended to refer to man, then we should say, " I am the man who 
commands you." 

Rem. 12. — In familiar language, the relative is sometimes improperly 
omitted. Thus, " He is a man I greatly esteem," should be, " He is a 
man whom I greatly esteem." So also, " I am dissatisfied with the man- 
ner I have spent my time," should be, "I am dissatisfied with the manner 
in which I have spent my time." 

Rem. 13. — Whatever is sometimes employed merely for the purpose 
of rendering a word or phrase emphatic ; as, " No condition whatever" 

Rem. 14. — What is sometimes used adverbially, in the sense of partly, 
or in part ; as, " What with ' wooding ■ at two or three places, and what 
with the excitement of the day, we were too fatigued to give more than a 
glance and a passing note of admiration to the beauty of the scene." — 
Willis. 

Rem. 15. — A pronoun is frequently employed to represent a 
sentence or phrase ; as, " Josephus received a liberal education 
among the Pharisees, after which he went to Rome, where he culti- 
vated his talents to great advantage." Which here represents the 
whole clause, " received a liberal education among the Pharisees" 

What is the rule respecting two or more pronouns, or nouns and pronouns, 
of different persons ? Examples. What is the rule respecting the position 
of relatives? Illustrate. What besides nouns are often employed as the 
antecedents of pronouns ? Examples. 



142 SYNTAX. 

Rem. 16. — A pronoun sometimes relates to an adjective for its antece- 
dent ; but this usage is inelegant, and should generally be avoided.^ 

Rem. 17. — A pronoun sometimes relates to a verb for its antecedent; 
but this usage is also objectionable.! 

Rule VL — Pronouns. 

§ 201. When two or more words, denoting different ob- 
jects, are taken conjointly, forming one common antece- 
dent, the pronoun agreeing with them must be in the plu- 
ral number ; as, " Virtue and good breeding render their 
possessor truly amiable." 

Rem. — When the antecedents are of different persons, the plu- 
ral pronoun referring to them should be of the first person, if either 
of the antecedents is of the first ; but if neither of the antecedents 
is of the first person, the pronoun should be of the second person ; 
as, " James and I have finished our lessons ; " — " You and Henry- 
shared it between you'* 

Rule vll. — Pronouns. 

§ 202. When two or more antecedents in the singular 
are so connected that the pronoun agrees with each term 
separately, or with one of them exclusively, the pronoun 
should be in the singular number ; as, " Man is not such 
a machine as a clock or a watch, which moves merely as 
it is moved ;" — " He, and no one else, was allowed to 
follow his inclinations ; " — " Every good act and every 
good purpose will receive its reward." 

What is the rule respecting the agreement of a pronoun with two or 
more words denoting different objects taken conjointly ? Examples. 
WJiat is the ride respecting the agreement of a plural pronoun with antecedents 
of different persons ? Examples. "What is the rule respecting the agree- 
ment of a pronoun with each of two or more antecedents taken separate- 
ly, or with one of them exclusively ? Examples. 

* " If this enumeration is complete, which, of course, we would not affirm 
it to be." — N. A. Review. 

f " Nor is it less pleased with its first successful endeavors to walk, or 
rather to run, which precedes walking." — Paley. 



PRONOUNS. 143 

Rem. — When a singular and plural antecedent are joined by 
the connective or or nor, the pronoun agreeing with them should 
be in the plural number ; as, " Neither he nor his friends have in- 
terested themselves in this subject.'' 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

§ 203. Write sentences containing examples which illustrate the 
agreement of pronouns with their antecedents ; — one or more ex- 
amples of it, used to represent a word in the plural ; — of it, repre- 
senting a noun in the masculine or feminine ; — containing exam- 
ples of who, which, and that, correctly employed ; — of whose, 
referring to persons ; — of whose, referring to irrational animals, 
and things without life ; — two or more pronouns, or nouns and pro- 
nouns, of different persons, joined in the same construction ; — ex- 
amples illustrating Rule 6th ; — a plural pronoun referring to ante- 
cedents of different persons ; — examples illustrating Rule 7th ; — 
a pronoun agreeing with a singular and a plural antecedent con- 
nected by or or nor. 

§ 204, EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

[The words which are designed to be parsed, are printed in Italics. 
The sentences following the dividing line, require an application of the 
Remarks and Observations, and may be omitted by beginners.] 

Model. 
" His task is accomplished." 

His is a pronoun, because it is a word used to supply the place of a 
noun ; — personal, because it expresses person and number of itself; — 
in the masculine gender, because it denotes a male ; — in the third per- 
son, because it represents a person spoken of; — in the singular num- 
ber, because it implies but one object ; — in the possessive case, because 
it denotes possession. Nom. Ae; Poss. his; Obj. him; Ind. he. — It is 
governed by task. The possessive case is governed by the noun which 
denotes the thing possessed. 

Task is a noun, because it is used to express the name of an object ; — 
common, because it may be applied to any one of a whole class ; — in 
the neuter gender, because it denotes an object which is neither male 
nor female ; — in the third person, because it denotes an object spoken 
of : — in the singular number, because it implies but one ; and in the 
nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb is accomplished. 
The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

What is the rule respecting a pronoun agreeing with a singular and a plural 
antecedent, connected by or or nor ! Examples. 



144 SYNTAX. 

" The cars have arrived." — u He who overcomes his passions 
conquers his greatest enemies" — " Venerable men ! you have come 
down to us from a former generation" — "Alexander and Napo- 
leon were destroyers of their race." — " Gibbon the historian, was 
an infidel." — " It was neither he nor his brother, that brought the 
intelligence." — " Our country is ruined, if it becomes too prosper- 
ous." — B. B. Edwards. " There is no service which a man of com- 
manding intellect can render his fellow-creatures, better than that 
of leaving behind him an unspotted example." — Andrews Norton. 



§ 204. " Whether teachers are to continue in the brighter ages 
which prophecy announces, is rendered doubtful by a very striking 
prediction of the times of the Messiah" — Channing. 
" Scenes must be beautiful, which, daily viewed, 
Please daily, and whose novelty survives 
Long knowledge and the scrutiny of years ; — 
Praise justly due to those that I describe." — Cowper. 
" Edward the Confessor's tomb." — " It would be fruitless, to in- 
vestigate the peculiarities of their respective institutions, which bear 
a very close affinity to one another" — Prescott. " John Marshall 
was an illustrious judge" — " Marsh, Capen, and Lyon's publica- 
tions." — " These points being known, his ignorance of other points, 
his doubts concerning other points, affect not the certainty of his 
reasoning." — Paley. " These are different questions from the 
question of the artist's existence ; or, which is the same, whether the 
thing before us be a work of art or not." — Ibid. " They had heard 
of the arrival of two independent companies twenty days before."— 
Sparks. " No member or members could arrogate to themselves the 
exclusive merit." — N. Y. Review. " It is we who are Hamlet." — 
Hazlitt. 

"My friends, do they now and then send 

A wish or a thought after me f " — Cowper. 

Eule Yin. — Adjectives. 
§ 205. Adjectives belong to the nouns or pronouns 

What is the general rule for adjectives. Examples. 



ADJECTIVES. 145 

which they qualify or define; as, "A good man;" — 
" These things." 

Rem. 1. — The adjectives this and that, these and those, must 
a^ree in number with the nouns which they define ; as, this book, 
these books ; that man, those men. 

Rem. 2. — When this and that are used in the sense of former and 
latter, this and these correspond with latter, that and those with former. 

Examples : — u Religion raises men above themselves ; irreligion 
sinks them beneath the brutes ; — this [irreligion] binds them 
down to a pitiable speck of earth, that [religion] opens for them a 
prospect to the skies." 

" Then palaces and lofty domes arose ; — 
These for devotion, and for pleasure those." — Pope. 

Rem. 3. — Adjectives which imply unity, must be joined to 
singular nouns, and those which imply plurality, to nouns in the 
plural ; as, one hour ; three days ; both houses ; all men. 

Obs. 1. — The adjective every is frequently joined to a plural noun 
used collectively to denote one aggregate ; as, " Every ten years." 

Obs. 2. — The word all is connected with singular nouns denoting 
quantity, and with plural nouns denoting number ; as, " All the corn was 
consumed ; " — " All things pass away." 

Obs. 3. — The adjective many is sometimes placed before a singular 
noun, the article a or an being inserted between them : as, " Full many a 
gem of purest ray serene." 

Rem. 4. — An adjective is sometimes used to qualify a phrase or 
sentence ; as, " To be blind is calamitous ; " — " That he should 
have refused the appointment, is extraordinary." 

Rem. 5. — An adjective is often used to qualify a noun and 
another adjective, taken as one compound term ; as, "A venerable 
old man ; " — " The best upland cotton." 

Rem. 6. — An adjective is sometimes used to modify the sense 
of another adjective ; as, " Red hot iron ; " — " Five hundred men." 

Rem. 7. — Either is occasionally employed by good writers in the sense 
of each. 

Examples : — " This merciless devastation extended more than two 
leagues on either side of the line of march." — Prescott. " The 
Sabine hills and the Albanian mountains stretch on either hand."— 
Irving. 

" On either side the giant guards divide." — Southey. 

What rule is observed respecting the number of the adjectives this, that, 
these, and those ? Examples. What of adjectives which imply unity and 
plurality ? Examples. What besides nouns and pronouns, do adjectives 
sometimes qualify ? Examples of each class. 

13 



146 SYNTAX. 

Eem. 8. — When an adjective is employed to express a compari- 
son between two objects only, or objects of two different classes, it 
should generally take the form of the comparative ; as, " Homer 
was the greater genius ; Virgil the tetter artist." — Pope. " Our 
brig was the faster sailer of the two." — Willis. " William is taller 
than James \ " — " William is the taller of the two ; " — " George 
and John are more studious than James and Charles." 

Obs. — Sometimes, however, the superlative form is employed when 
only two objects are compared ;* as, " Of the two, the English system is 
the safest." — Humphrey. u The largest boat of the two was cut loose." — 
Cooper. " Both of these opinions have the sanction of high authority, 
and it may be worth while to examine which of them be wisest." — N. A. 
Review. " I think the English one rather the best of the two." — Lockhart. 

Rem. 9. — When a comparison is expressed between more than 
two objects of the same class, the superlative degree is employed ; 
as, " The last of the Roman tribunes ; " — " The most ancient poet ; " 
— " The noblest of the Greeks." 

Rem. 10. — In the use of comparative and superlative adjectives, 
care should be taken not to include a noun or pronoun in a class to 
which it does not belong, nor exclude it from a class to which it 
does belong. Thus, it would be improper to say, u Socrates was 
wiser than any Athenian," because Socrates was himself an Athe- 
nian, and could not be wiser than himself. The correct form would 
be, " Socrates was jvviser than any other Athenian," or " Socrates 
was the wisest of the Athenians." The following sentence is also 
erroneous : — " The vice of covetousness, of all others, enters deep- 
est into the soul." Covetousness is not one of the other vices, as the 
construction of the sentence would imply. Corrected : — " Of all 
the vices,. covetousness enters deepest into the soul." 

What is the general rule respecting an- adjective used to express a comparison 
between two objects, or two classes of objects ? Examples. What is the gen- 
eral rule respecting an adjective, used to express a comparison between more 
than two objects of the same class. Examples. What care should be ob- 
served in the use of comparatives and superlatives ? 

* " The strict rule laid down by grammarians, that the comparative is to 
be used when two things are spoken of, and the superlative when more than 
two are the subject of discourse, has not been observed, even by the best 
writers, and still less by the best speakers, and need not now be insisted 
on." — Connon. 

" The superlative is often more agreeable to the ear ; nor is the sense in 
jured. In many cases a strict adherence to the comparative form renders 
the language too stiff and formal."— '-Lemiie. 

See also Angus's Grammar and Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric.^ 



ADJECTIVES. 147 

Correct Examples : — " An aristocracy is, of all forms of govern- 
ment, the most tenacious of life, and the least flexible in its pur- 
poses." — Bancroft. " Time ought, above all other kinds of prop- 
ertv, to be free from invasion." — Johnson. " Transcribing was, of 
all occupations, that which Cowper disliked the most." — Southey. 

False Syntax : — " The high reputation which he afterwards ob- 
tained, came too late to gladden the heart which, of all others, 
would have most rejoiced in it." — Southey. " This kind of wit is 
that which abounds in Cowley, more than in any author that ever 
wrote." — Addison. " Breathing with ease, is a blessing of every 
moment ; yet, of all others, it is that which we possess with the 
least consciousness." — Paley. " In the age of Elizabeth, England 
was more distinguished for patriotism than any nation in civilized 
Europe." — N. A. Review. 

Rem. 11. — Double comparatives and superlatives, as tvorser, 
most straitest, should be carefully avoided. 

Obs. — The word lesser is, however, sometimes employed by good 
writers ; as, " The lesser incidents. 5 ' — N. Y. Review. " Lesser- sympathies." 
— Dana. "Of lesser note." — Goldsmith. "Fifty lesser angels." — Prof. 
Wilson. " Lesser graces." — Blair. ;t Like lesser streams." — Coleridge. 

Rem. 12. — An adjective is sometimes used to perform the office of an 
adverb ; as, " Soft sighed the flute." — Thomson. This usage is mostly 
confined to the poets. 

Rem. 13. — An adjective may be used to express an attribute or 
quality which results from the action of the verb with which it is 
connected. Adjectives of this description relate both to the verb 
and the noun or pronoun, and may be called adverbial adjectives. 

Examples : — " The door was painted green:'' — " Heaven opened 

wide her ever-during gates." — Milton. " The exiles of a year had 

grown familiar with the favorite amusement of the Indians." — 

Bancroft. u Children just let loose from school." — Goldsmith. 

Rem. 14. — An adjective is sometimes used absolutely, having no direct 

reference to any noun or pronoun expressed or implied ; as, " The desire 

of being happy reigns in all hearts ; " — " To be ivise and good is to be 

great and noble" See Rule 4, Rem. 2. 

Rem. 15. — Nouns are sometimes used to perform the office of 
adjectives, as, M A stone cistern," tt A gold watch ; " and adjectives 
to perform the office of nouns, as u The great and good of all ages." 

Coirect the false syntax, and show why it is false. What of double com- 
paratives and superlatives ? What is an adverbial adjective ? Examples. 
Give examples of nouns used to supply the place of adjectives and adjectives 
used to supply the place of nouns, 



148 SYNTAX. 

ARTICLES. 
Rem. 16. — The article a or an belongs to nouns of 
the singular number only, or to nouns denoting a plurality 
of objects in one aggregate; as, "A house;" — u An 
eagle ; " — " A million." 

Rem. 17 — The article the belongs to nouns either in 
the singular or plural number ; as, " The President ; " — 
" The Europeans." 

Rem. 18. — Articles are sometimes used to modify the sense of 
other adjectives: as, " A few days;" — "A thousand years;" — 
" So much the stronger proved he." 

Rem. 19. — The article the is sometimes used to modify the sense 
of an adverb ; as, " The longer you delay, the more your difficulties 
will increase." 

Rem. 20. — When the article a or an is placed before the words few 
and little, it generally changes their meaning from negative to positive. 
Thus, when we say, " There were few persons present," the word few is 
used in a negative sense, in distinction from many, to denote the smallness 
of the number. But when we say, "There were a few persons present,'* 
the word few is used in a positive sense, in distinction from none, to denote 
that there were some persons present. The expressions, " He needs little 
nid," and " He needs a little aid," serve also to illustrate this remark. 

Rem. 21. — "When two nouns following a comparative refer to differ- 
ent persons or things, the article should be repeated before the second 
noun ; but when the two nouns refer to the same person or thing, the ar- 
ticle should not be repeated. Thus, in the sentence, " He is a better sol- 
dier than a scholar," the terms soldier and scholar relate properly to differ- 
ent individuals, and it is implied that he is a better soldier than a scholar 
would be. But, in the sentence, " He is a better soldier than scholar," 
the terms soldier and scholar are limited to one individual, and it is im- 
plied that he is better in the capacity of a soldier than in that of a scholar. 

Rem. 22. — When two or more adjectives standing in connec- 
tion are used to describe different objects of the same name, the 
article should generally be placed before each of them ; as, " A red 
and a white flag ; " that is, two flags, one red and the other white. 

What is the rule for the agreement of the article a or an? Examples. 
Of the article the ? Examples. What besides nouns, do articles sometimes 
modify ? Examples of each class. What is the general rule respecting the 
article, when two or more adjectives standing in connection describe different 
objects of the same name ? Examples, 



ADJECTIVES. 149 

But when no ambiguity i$ likely to arise from the omission of the 
article, its repetition is not essential. Thus we may say with equal 
propriety, " The fourteenth and the fifteenth century," or u The 
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries." 

Rem. 23. — When two or more adjectives are used to describe 
the same object, the article should generally be employed before the 
first only ; as, " A red and white flag ; " that is, one flag, both red 
and white. But when we wish to give particular prominence to 
each adjective, the article may be inserted before each, if no am- 
biguity would arise ; as, " The learned, the eloquent, the patriotic 
Chatham." 

Rem. 24. — A noun taken in its widest and most general sense, is 
commonly used without an article ; as, " Man is mortal ; " — " Vice 
is odious ; " — u Iron is the most useful of the metals ; " — " He was 
called Master" 

Obs. — Sometimes, however, the article the is used with a singular 
noun to denote the whole species, or an indefinite portion of the species ; 
as, " The horse is a noble animal." 

Rem. 25. — The article is generally omitted before proper names, and 
such other nouns as are of themselves sufficiently definite in their signifi- 
cation; as, ''George Washington was born in the year 1732." — "To- 
day is yesterday returned." — Young. There are, however, some cases, 
in which the use of the article before proper names, is admissible ; as, 
" The Pyrenees ; " — a The French ; " — " The Earth ; " — " The illustrious 
Franklin ;" — u A Mr. William Jones addressed the meeting." 

Rem. 26. — The letter a is sometimes employed by mercantile men in 
the sense of the preposition to;* as, "Baltimore flour sold at $4.50 a 
$4.58;" that is, "Baltimore flour sold at prices varying from $4.50 to 
$4.58." 

Obs. — A appears also to have the force of a preposition in the follow- 
ing and other similar examples: — "He set the public a reading." — 
Blackwood's Magazine. "There is some ill a brewing." — Shakspeare. 
In such expressions as, " Thomas a Becket," " Thomas a Kempis," a is 
employed in the sense of the preposition of. 

Rem. 27. — A is sometimes employed as a mere expletive prefix; as, 
" I begin to be a-weary of thee." — Shakspeare. " Poor Tom 's a-cold." — 
Ibid. 

What exception to this rule ? Examples. What is the general rule when 
two or more adjectives describe the same object ? Examples. WJiat excep- 
tion ? Examples. What of a noun taken in its widest sense ? Examples. 

% " This I take to be a relic of the Norman French, which was once the 
law and mercantile language of England ; for, in French, a, with an accent, 
means to or at." — Cobbett. 

13* 



150 SYNTAX. 

Rem. 28. — An was formerly used as a conjunction, in the sense of if; 
as, " Fortune is to be honored and respected, an it be but for her daugh- 
ters, Confidence and Reputation." — Bacon. 

POSITION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Rem. 29. — Adjectives should be so placed as to show clearly 
which nouns they are intended to qualify. Thus, instead of say- 
ing, " This disconsolate soldier's widow," -we should say, " This 
soldier's disconsolate widow." 

Obs. 1. — When an adjective is used to qualify another adjective 
and a noun, taken jointly, it should not be placed between the 
other adjective and the noun. Thus, in the expression, " An ami- 
able young man," the word amiable qualifies the phrase young man ; 
it would therefore be improper to say, " A young amiable man." 

Obs. 2. — The adjective generally precedes the noun to which it be- 
longs ; as, " A patriotic citizen." But in the following cases the adjective 
most commonly follows the noun: — 1. When some word or phrase is 
dependent on the adjective : as, " The knowledge requisite for a states- 
man ; " — "A river twenty yards wide? 2. When the adjective is used 
as a title ; as, " Alfred the Great ; " — " George the Fourth." 3. When the 
quality expressed by the adjective is dependent on the action of a transi- 
tive verb ; as, " Vanity often renders man contemptible." 

Obs. 3. — When an adjective is qualified by an adverb it is sometimes 
placed before the noun, and sometimes after it ; as, a A very good man ; " 

— "A man conscientiously exact." 

Obs. 4. — When a verb comes between an adjective and its noun, the 
adjective may either precede or follow the noun : as, " Great is our God ;" 

— " Gaming is ruinous." 

" How vain the ardor of the crowd, 
How low, how little are the proud, 
How indigent the great." — Gray. 

Obs. 5. — When several adjectives belong to one noun, they may either 
precede or follow the noun ; as, " A learned, wise, and amiable man," or 
"A man learned, wise, and amiable." The longest adjective is usually 
placed last. 

Obs. 6. — An adjective relating to a pronoun is generally placed after 
the pronoun ; as, " He is faithful and hind." 

Obs. 7. — When a noun is preceded by an article in connection with 
one or more other adjectives, the article is generally placed first ; as, " A 
great and good man." But when the words many, such, both, all, and 
what, are employed, they generally precede the article: as, " Many a 

What rule is to be obsemed respecting the position of adjectives ? Illus- 
trate. What rule is to be observed respecting an adjective used to qualify 
another adjective and a noun ? Illustrate. 



ADJECTIVES. 151 

day ; " — " Such a favor ; " — " Both the trees." The article is also placed 
after adjectives which are modified by as, so, how, and Jiowever ; as, " How 
great a work." 

Obs. 8. — Some grammarians object to the use of the numerals, 
two, three, four, ete., before the adjectives first and last. There 
seems j however, to be no good reason for the objection,* and the 
expressions two first, three last, etc., are fully sanctioned by good 
usage. 

Examples : — " My two last letters." — Addison. " The two first lines 
are uncommonly beautiful." — Blair. "At the two last schools." 
— Johnson. " The three first generations." — E.Everett. "The 
two first years." — Bancroft. " The two first days." — Irving. 
" The two first cantos." — A. H. Everett. " The four first centu- 
ries." — Prescott. " The two last productions." — N. A. Review. 
" The four first are altogether and unequivocally poetical." — 
Cheever. " The three first of his longer poems." — Southey. 

Obs. 9. — The expressions first three, last two, etc., are also in 
good use, and, in some cases, are to be preferred. 

Examples*. — "The first eighteen years." — N. A. Review. "The 
history of the world for the last fifty years." — E. Everett. " Dur- 
ing the last seven or eight years." — Bmugham. 

What is said of the use of numerals before the adjectives first and last ? 
Examples. What other form is also employed ? Examples. 

* " It has been fashionable of late to write the first three, and so on, in- 
stead of the three first. People write in this way to avoid the seeming ab- 
surdity of implying that more than one thing can be the first; but it is, at 
least, equally absurd to talk about the first four, when (as often happens) 
there is no second four.'''' — Arnold. 

" Surely, if there can be only ' one last,' ' one first,' there can be only ' a 
last one,' l a first one.' I need only observe, that usage is decidedly in fa- 
vor of the former phraseology." — ^Grant. 

The following remarks respecting this question, are extracted from a pa- 
per read by Dr. Murdock before the New Haven Academy of Sciences : — 

" The only argument against the use of two first, and in favor of substi- 
tuting first two, so far as I can recollect, is this. In the nature of things, 
there can be only one first and one last, in any series of things. But is it 
true that there can never be more than one first and one last? If it be so, 
then the adjectives first and last must always be of the singular number, 
and can never agree with nouns in the plural. We are told that the first 
years of a lawyer's practice are seldom very lucrative. The poet tells us, 
that his first essays were severely handled by the critics, but his last efforts 
have been well received. Examples like these might be produced without 
number. They occur everywhere in all our standard writers. * * When 
a numeral adjective and a qualifying epithet both refer to the same noun, 
the general rule of the English language is to place the numeral first, then 
the qualifying epithet, and afterwards the noun. Thus we say, * the two 
wise men,' ' the two tall men ; ' and not, ' the wise two men,' ' the tall two 
men.' And the same rule holds in superlatives. We say, 'the two wisest 
men,' ' the two tallest men ; ' and not ' the wisest two men,' ' the tallest two 
men.' Now if this be admitted to be the general rule of the English Ian- 



152 SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

§ 206. Write sentences containing examples of descriptive and 
definitive adjectives ; — containing an adjective that qualifies a sen- 
tence or phrase ; — an adjective that qualifies a noun and another 
adjective, taken as one compound term; — an adjective expressing a 
comparison between two objects only; — one expressing a compari- 
son between more than two objects; — an adverbial adjective; — a 
noun used to perform the office of an adjective, and an adjective 
used to perform the office of a noun ; — examples of the articles ; - — 
one or more examples illustrating Rem. 22nd; — Bern. 23rd; — 
Rem. 24th. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Model. 
§207. " The country abounds in excellent fruit." 

The is an article. This title is applied to the definite adjectives a or 
an, and the. — It is definite, because it indicates some particular ob- 
ject ; — and belongs to country. Adjectives belong to the nouns or 
pronouns which they qualify or define. 

Excellent is an adjective, because it is joined to a noun to qualify or de- 
fine its meaning; — descriptive, because it expresses some quality of 
the noun fruit ; — in the positive degree, because it expresses the 
simple state of the quality. Positive, excellent ; comparative, more 
excellent ; superlative, most excellent. — It belongs to fruit. Adjec- 
tives belong to the nouns or pronouns which they qualify or define. 

" Wise men." — "A virtuous life." — " Rural scenery is always 
interesting." — " Are these things so ? " — " The noblest sjnrits some- 
times grow up in the obscurest spheres." — " More agreeable conver- 
sation." — " An able statesman." — " The rose is sweet." — " Our 
highest interests." — " All hope was lost." — " Time is so swift of 
foot that none can overtake U" — " Modesty is one of the greatest 
ornaments of youth." — " Our good or bad fortune depends greatly 
on the choice toe make of our friends." 



§ 208. " Men grew old in camps, and acquired the highest renown 
by their warlike achievements, without being once required to face 
serious danger." — Macaulay. " Any one can conquer his passions 

guage, then it follows, that generally we should say, ' the two first ' ' the 
two last ,' etc., rather than ' the first two,'' the * last two,'' etc. This I say 
should generally be the order of' the words. Yet there are some cases in 
which it seems preferable to say, ' the first two] ' the first three] etc." 



VERBS. 153 

who calls in the aid of religion/' — Crabb. " Every nine days must 
have its wonder, no matter of tohat kind." — Irving. " We have 
Me rather availed ourselves of &is testimony of a foreign critic in 
behalf of Shakspeare, because our own countryman, Dr. Johnson, has 
not been so favorable to him." — Hazlitt. " I made the greater pro- 
gress." — Franklin. " A century is a period of a hundred years." — 
" Kectitude in all its branches, is the supreme good." — Channing. 
" The purest clay is that which burns white." — " The door was red 
hot" — Dickens. " That mind and body often sympathize, is plain." 
— Jenyns. " The to? Zas£ qualities are indeed so common in a/Z the 
poetry of his nation, that we need scarcely enlarge upon the phrase 
as belonging peculiarly to him." — /. G. Lockhart. " Without fru- 
gality none can be ricA ; and with #, very few would be poor." — 
Johnson. 

u Man often clouds with vain or fancied ills, 

His narrow span, when Nature's stainless light 

Dispenses only happiness, and fills 

The world with things so beautiful and bright. 

Her plains, her mountains, and her valleys teem 

With living verdure in the fairest dress ; 

And ocean, river, lake, and singing stream, 

Combine to harmonize her loveliness." — W. C. Lodge. 

Rule IX. — Verbs. — Agreement. 

§ 209. A verb must agree with its nominative in num- 
ber and person ; as, " I go ; " — " Thou seest ;" — "He 
hears.'* 

False Syntax : — " The singular admixture of serious faults which 
call for severe criticism, with great merits which excite our warmest 
admiration, render our task one of unusual perplexity." — West- 
minster Review. u He was forced to account for it by one of the 
most absurd, unphilosophical notions that was ever started." — Ad- 
dison. " They dwelt with a contented fondness on the scenes amidst 
which they had been born and nurtured with a purity and exulta- 

What is the rule respecting the agreement of verbs ? Examples. 
Correct the false syntax, and show why it is false. 



154 SYNTAX. 

tion of feeling which powerfully captivates the heart." — N. A. 
Review. 

" A few brief summer days, and thou 

No more amid these haunts shall glide." — Bernard Barton. 
" What art thou, speak, that on designs unknown, 
While others sleep, thus range the camp alone ? " — Pope. 
Rem. 1 . — When a verb is placed between two nominatives of 
different numbers or persons, it should generally be made to agree 
with that which precedes it ; as, " His meat was locusts and wild 
honey ;'" — " Thou art the man." But when the verb is followed 
by the direct and principal subject, it should be made to agree with 
the latter nominative ; as, " Who art thou ?" — " What are we ? " 

COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 

Rem. 2. — The singular form of a collective noun, may have a 
verb agreeing with it either in the singular or plural number; 
as, " The nation is powerful ; " — " The assembly were divided in 
their opinions." 

Obs. — No definite rule can be given to decide, in all cases, 
which number should be employed to agree with a collective noun. 
When the noun most naturally suggests the idea of unity, the verb 
should be singular ; but when the noun conveys the idea of plurality, 
the verb should be plural. In modern usage, the plural form is 
most frequently employed. 

Rem. 3. — The transitive verbs need and want are sometimes employed 
in a general sense, without a nominative expressed or implied.^ 

Examples : — " There needed a new dispensation of religion for the 
moral reform of society." — Caleb dishing. " There needs no better 
picture of his destitute and piteous situation, than that furnished 
by the homely pen of the chronicler." — Irving. " Wheresoevei 
the case of the opinions came in agitation, there wanted I not patron? 
to stand up to plead for them." — Sparlcs's Am. Biog. 
" Nor did there want, 
Cornice or frieze, with bossy sculptures graven." — Milton. 
Rem. 4. — A verb in the imperative is sometimes used absolutely 

What of a verb placed between two nominatives of different numbers or per 
sons ? Examples. What is said respecting the agreement of a verb with m 
collective noun 1 Examples. How are we to be governed in deciding which 
number should be employed to agree with a collective noun ? 

* See Webster, Perley,and Ingersoll. 



VERBS. 155 

having no direct reference to any particular subject expressed or im- 
plied.* 

Examples : — " And God said, ' Let there be light ; ' and there was 
light"*- Gm. 1:3. 
" ' I 've lost a day,' — the prince who nobly cried, 
Had been an emperor without his crown, — 
Of Rome ? — say, rather, lord of human race." — Young. 

Rule X. — Yerbs. — Agreement. 
§ 210. When two or more nominatives denoting differ- 
ent objects are taken conjointly, forming one common sub- 
ject, the verb agreeing with them should be in the plural 
number ; as, " Socrates and Plato were eminent philoso- 
phers;" — " The air, the earth, the water, teem with 
delighted existence." 

False Syntax : — " When the desire of pleasing and willingness 
to be pleased is silently diminished, the renovation of friendship is 
hopeless." — Johnson. " The stamp and denomination still contin- 
ues, but the intrinsic value is frequently lost." — Addison. 

Rem. 1. — When two or more nominatives are thus employed, they 
are generally connected by the conjunction and, expressed or understood. 

Rem. 2. — A singular nominative and an objective after with, are 
sometimes made to form the joint subject of a plural verb ; as, " Pha- 
raoh with all his host, were drowned in the Red Sea." This copulative 
use of with is occasionally adopted by good writer^; but it would be bet- 
ter, in most cases, either to put and in the place of with or to employ the 
singular form of the verb.f Thus, instead of saying, " This noble ship 
with her gallant crew were buried beneath the waves," it would be more 
correct to say. ki This noble ship and her gallant crew were buried beneath 
the waves." So also, " This brave officer with a company of only fifty 

What is the rule respecting the agreement of a verb with two or more 
nominatives denoting different objects, taken conjointly ? Examples. 
Correct the false syntax, and show why it-is false. 

* See Frazee, Allen and Cornwell, Nutting, Lynde, and Chapin. 

t The use of a plural verb to agree with a singular nominative and an 
objective after vnth, is sanctioned by Priestlev, Grant, Milligan, Cobbett, 
Lewis, Hendrick, Lennie, Hort, Del Mar, and £immonite ; and condemned 
by G. Brown, Murray, Sanborn, Kirkham, Picket, Hiley, Meilan, Higgin- 
son, Hazlitt, and Latham. 

" This phraseology, though not strictly consonant with the rules of con- 
cord, frequently obtains, both in ancient and modern languages. In some 
oases indeed it seems preferable to the syntactical form of expression." — 
Dr. Crombie. 



156 SYNTAX. 

men, have succeeded in quelling the insurrection," would be better ex- 
pressed by saying, " This brave officer, with a company of only fifty men, 
has succeeded in quelling the insurrection." 

Examples : — " This principle, with others of the same kind, supposes 
man to act from a brute impulse." — Johnson. " He himself, with 
others, was taken." — Bancroft. " A body of two thousand men 
succeeded in surprising the quarters of the marquis of Cadiz, who, 
with his followers, was exhausted by fatigue and watching." — 
Prescott. 

Rem. 3. — When two or more singular nominatives denoting the 

same object are taken conjointly, the verb agreeing with them must 

be singular ; as, " This renowned patriot and statesman has retired 

to private life." 

Rule XL — Verbs. — Agreement. 

§ 211. When two or more singular nominatives are so 
connected that the verb agrees with each subject separ 
rately, or with one of them to the exclusion of the others, 
the verb should be in the singular number. 

Examples: — "Duty, and not interest, was his constant rule of ac- 
tion ; " — " Nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain, breaks the serene of 
heaven ; " — " Neither Astrology, nor Alchemy deserves the name 
of a science ; " — " In every tribe, superstition, or gratitude, or for- 
tune, has exalted a particular family ; " — " Caesar, as well as Cicero, 
was remarkable for his eloquence ; " — " Thine is the kingdom, 
and the power, and the glory." 

" Every tongue and every eye 
Does homage to the passer by." 

False Syntax : — " Neither romantic fancy, nor extreme pathos, 
nor sublimity of the very first order, are discoverable in Pope." — Ed- 
inburgh Review. " The most trifling occasion, a transient scarcity of 
flesh or lentils, the neglect of an accustomed salutation, a mistake 
of precedency in the public baths, or even a religious dispute, were 
at any time sufficient to kindle a sedition." — Gibbon. 
" Danger, long travel, want, or woe, 
Soon change the form that best we know." — Scott, 

When two or more singular nominatives denoting the same object, are taken 
conjointly, in what number must the verb be ? Examples. What is the rule 
respecting two or more singular nominatives so connected that the verb 
agrees with each separately, or with one to the exclusion of the others 1 
Examples. Correct the false syntax, and show why it is false. 



VEKBS. 157 

Rem. 1. — When a singular and a plural nominative are con- 
nected by or or nor, the verb should generally be in the plural ; 
and, when the harmony of the sentence admits of it, the plural 
nominative should be placed next to the verb ; as, " Neither pov- 
erty nor riches were injurious to him." 

Rem. 2. — When two or more nominatives of different persons 
are connected by or or nor, the verb is often made to agree with 
the nearest nominative ; as, " Either you or I am in fault." But it 
would generally be better to express the verb in connection with 
each nominative, unless the different persons of the verb agree in 
form ; as, " Either you are in fault, or I am." 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 
§ 212. Write exercises containing a verb that agrees with a sin- 
gular nominative ; — a plural nominative ; — a nominative in the 
first person ; — one in the second ; — one in the third ; — a verb 
agreeing with a collective noun ; — a verb agreeing with two or 
more nominatives denoting different objects taken conjointly ; — 
several different examples, illustrating Rule 11th; — a verb agree- 
ing with a singular and a plural nominative, connected by or or 
nor ; — a verb agreeing with two or more nominatives of different 
persons. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Model. 
§ 213. "I saw the sun sinking behind the hills." 

Saw is a verb, because it expresses an assertion or affirmation ; — irreg- 
ular, because it does not form its past tense and perfect participle by 
adding d or ed to the present ; — see, saw, seen; — it is a transitive verb, 
in the active voice, because it governs the object sun; — in the indica- 
tive mode, because it expresses a declaration ; — in the past tense, be- 
cause it denotes indefinite past time ; — in the first person singular, to 
agree with its nominative /. A verb must agree with its nominative in 
number and person. 

Sinking is a participle, because it is a mode of the verb which partakes 
of the properties of the verb and the adjective ; — sink, sunk, sunk ; — 
imperfect, because it denotes the continuance of the action ; — intransi- 
tive, because it does not have a noun or pronoun for its object ; — and 
belongs to sun. Participles relate to nouns o* pronouns. 

What is the ride respecting a singular and a plural nominative, connected 
by or or nor '? Examples. Respecting two or more nominatives of different 
persons, connected by or or nor ? Examples. 
14 



158 SYNTAX. 

" I will obey" — " He has returned" — " It is lost." — " Strive to 
improve." — " The multitude pursue pleasure." — " Time and tide 
wait for no man." — " The intellect, and not the heart is concerned." 
— " Neither the time nor the place was known." — " The origin of 
the city and state of Rome is involved in great uncertainty." 



§ 214. "In civilized life, where the happiness, and indeed almost 
the existence of man, depends so much upon the opinion of his fel- 
low men, he is constantly acting a studied part." — Irving. " That 
great critic and philosopher endeavors to palliate this imperfection 
in the Greek poet." — Addison. " This, and this alone, constitutes 
the worth and importance of the sacrifice." — Channing. " A shady 
grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh water, are sufficient to at- 
tract a colony of sedentary Arabs." — Gibbon. " Africa, as well as 
Gaul, was gradually fashioned to the imitation of the capital." — Ibid. 
" Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green, 
That host with their banners, at sunset were seen." — Byron. 

" The almost unobserved advancement and diffusion of knowledge 
were paving the way for discoveries." — Mackintosh. " The iron, as 
well as the wood, was taken from the wreck of the same ship." — 
Southey. " It has been frequently observed by writers on physiog- 
nomy, that every emotion and every operation of the mind has a 
corresponding expression of the countenance." — Dugald Stewart. 

Rule XII. — Verbs. — Government. 
§ 215. Transitive verbs govern the objective case ; as. 



a 



I have heard him;" — "Honor thy father and thy 
mother" See § 124, Rem. 1, Note. 

Rem. 1 . — A verb in the infinitive, a sentence, or a phrase, often sup- 
plies the place of a noun or pronoun in the objective case ; as, " You see 
how few of these mm have returned." 

Rem. 2. — An intransitive verb may be used to govern an ob- 
jective, when the verb and the noun depending upon it are of 
kindred signification ; as, " To live a blameless life ; " — " To run a 
race." 

What is the rule respecting transitive verbs ? Examples. What of an 
intransitive verb followed by a noun of kindred signification ? Examples. 



VERBS. 159 

Obs. — Idiomatic expressions sometimes occur in which intransitive 
verbs are followed by objectives depending upon them ; as, " Perhaps we 
have wanted the spirit, and manliness, to look the subject fully in the face." 

— Chinning. "They laughed him to scorn."— Matt. 9 : 24. " We have 
stopped a moment to breathe our horses." — Longfellow. 

" The broken soldier, kindly bid to stay, 
Sat by the fire, and talked the night away." — Goldsmith. 

Rem. 3. — Transitive verbs of asking, giving, teaching, and some 

others, are often employed to govern two objectives ;* as, " Ask 

him his opinion." — " This experience taught me a valuable lesson.** 

— " Spare me yet this bitter cup." — Hemarts. " I thrice presented 
Mm a kingly crown." — Shakspeare. 

Rem. 4. — Verbs of asking, giving, teaching, and some others, 
are often employed in the passive voice to govern a noun or pro- 
noun in the objective. 

Examples : — " He was asked his opinion" — Johnson. " The pupil, in 
more advanced life, is taught the science in its strictly logical form." 
— N. A. Review. " He was denied admission to the most important 
public repositories." — Prescott. " He had been refused shelter." — 
Irving. " They were denied the indulgence." — Macaulay. " They 
have been denied every ennobling institution." — Channing "Am I 
to be asked such a question ? " — Cooper. 

Obs. — This form of expression is anomalous, and might, in many 
cases, be improved.! Thus, instead of saying, " He was offered a seat 

Transitive verbs of asking, teaching, etc. 1 Examples. How are verbs of 
asking, teaching, etc., often employed in the passive voice ? Examples. 

* Many grammarians supply a preposition to govern one of the objectives 
following this class of verbs, but such a mode of parsing is, in many cases, 
arbitrary, and does violence to an important and well established idiom of 
the language. In the expressions, " Teach, them, to obey the laws," and 
M Teach them obedience to the laws," it is manifest that the grammatical 
influence of the verb teach upon the pronoun them, is the same in both ex- 
amples. Why then parse the Word them as governed by the verb in one 
example, and in the other by a preposition utvder stood ? 

The rule for the government of two objectives by a verb, without the aid 
of a preposition, is adopted by Webster, Murray, Alexander, Frazee, Nut- 
ting, Perley, Goldsbury, J. M. Putnam, Hamlin, Flower, Crane, Brace, 
Greenleaf, C. Alexander, Burr, Cornell, Cutler, and many others. 

f G. Brown, Sanborn, Murray, Wright, and several other grammarians 
condemn this usage altogether ; while, on the other hand, it has the sanc- 
tion of a still larger class of authors, including Dr. Crombie, Flower, 
D'Orsey, Crane, Frazee, R. C. Smith, Emmons, Hamlin, Lennie, Hendrick, 
Ains worth, Arnold, and Nutting. 

" Examples of the application of this rule are furnished by the best wri- 
ters. Phrases such as these, — ' She was asked the question,' ' She was 
taught her lesson,' ' They were offered a pardon,' ' They were denied theii 
request,' etc., are of frequent occurrence ; and it seems better, after the ex- 
ample of the Latin, to provide for them by a special rule, than to condemn 
them as inaccuracies." — Po?id } s Murray. 



160 SYNTAX. 

in the council," it would be preferable to say, " A seat in the council was 
offered [to] him." 

Rem. 5. — The passive voice of a verb is sometimes used in connec- 
tion with a preposition, forming a compound passive verb. 

Examples : — " He was listened to without a murmur." — A. H. Everett. 
"Nor is this enterprise to be scoffed at? — Channing. "This is a 
tendency to be guarded against." — Paley. " A bitter persecution 
was carried on." — Hallam. 

Rem. 6. — Idiomatic expressions sometimes occur in which a noun in 
the objective is preceded by a passive verb, and followed by a preposi- 
tion used adverbially. 

Examples : — " Vocal and instrumental music were made use of." — 
Addison. " The third, fourth, and fifth, were taken possession of at 
half past eight." — Southey. " The Pinta was soon lost sight of in 
the darkness of the night." — Irving. "It ought never to be lost 
sight of" — N. A. Review. 
Obs. — This idiom is anomalous ; but it has the sanction of many 
good writers, and is therefore shielded from the unqualified condemna- 
tion of the critic. It would, however, generally be better to avoid it. 

Rem. 7. — There are some verbs which may be used either transitively 
or intransitively ; as, " He will return in a few days ; " " He will return the 
book ; " — " The wind blows violently ; " " The wind blows the chaff." 

Rem. 8. — The verb learn is often improperly used for teach ; as, " It 
is of little utility to learn scholars that certain words are signs of certain 
modes and tenses." Insert teach in the place of learn. 

Rem. 9. — The verbs lay and set should not be confounded with 
lie and sit. Lay is properly transitive; lie, intransitive. Set, is 
either transitive or intransitive ; sit, always intransitive. See the 
principal parts of these verbs, in the list of irregular verbs, pp. 
113, 114. 

Correct Examples : — " He fasted and lay in sackcloth." — 
1 Kings 21 : &7. "He laid his robe from him." — Jonah 3:6. 
" I have sat for hours at my window." — Irving. " Thou hast set a 
bound that they may not pass over." — Ps. 104: 9. " They have 
forsaken my law which I set before them." — Jer. 9 : 13. " We say, 
a thing lies by us until we bring it into use ; we lay it by for some 
future purpose ; we lie down in order to repose ourselves ; we lay 
money down by way of deposit." — Crabb. 

False Syntax : — " My old friend sat himself down in the chair. *\ 
— Addison, " The mate of a British vessel then laying at anchor 
in Boston harbor." — Sparks's Am. Biog. 

What of the verbs lay and set ? Correct the false syntax, and show why 
it is false. 



VERBS. 161 

" Even now, where Alpine solitudes ascend, 
I sit me down a pensive Lour to spend." — Goldsmith. 

" For him through hostile camps I bend my way, 
For him thus prostrate at thy feet I lay." — Pope. 

Rem. 10. — A verb in the infinitive is often preceded by a noun or 
pronoun in the objective, which has no direct dependence on any other 
word.* 

Examples: — " One error is that of concluding the things in question 
to be alike." — Whatsley. " Columbus ordered a strong fortress of 
wood and plaster to be erected." — Irving. " Its favors here should 
make wt tremble." — Young. 
Rem. 11. — Idiomatic expressions sometimes occur, in which the ac- 
tive form of a transitive verb is used in a sense nearly allied to the 
passive ; a§, " The goods sell rapidly ; " — " The cloth tears ; " — " Mahog- 
any planes smooth ; " — " These lines read well." 

Rem. 12. — The imperfect participle of a transitive verb is some- 
times employed in a passive sense. f 

Examples : — " The spot where this new and strange tragedy was 
acting" — E. Everett. " An attempt is making in the English Par- 
liament to provide by law for the education of the poor." — 
Daniel Webster. — " The fortress was building." — Irving. " The 
fame of the Portuguese discoveries, and of the expeditions fitting 
out, drew the attention of the world." — Ibid. "We must pass 
to a rapid notice of the magnificent church, now erecting in the 
city of New York." — N. A. Review. "While this necessary move- 
ment was making." — Cooper. " While these things were transact' 
ing in England." — Bancroft. 

What peculiar use is sometimes made of the imperfect participle of a transi- 
tive verb ? Examples. 

*" The infinitive has somemties a subject in the objective case ; as, "I 
believe him, to be an honest man ; " — ' He commanded the horse to be sad- 
dled ; ' — 'I confess myself to be in fault ; ■ — ' Let him be punished.' Him, 
in the first sentence quoted, is not the object of the verb believe, but the sub- 
ject of to be. In the second sentence, horse is not the object of command ; — 
it is not meant that a command was given to the horse." — Butler. 

" The agent to a verb in the infinitive mode must be in the objective 
case." — Nutting. 

f Different opinions have long existed among critics respecting this pas- 
sive use of the imperfect participle. Many respectable writers substitute 
the compound passive participle ; as, " The house is being built ; " u The 
book is being printed." But the prevailing practice of the best authors is 
in favor of the simple form ; as, " The house is building." 

" The propriety of these imperfect passive tenses has been doubted by 
almost all our grammarians ; though I believe but few of them have written 
many pages without condescending to make use of them. Dr. Beattiesays, 
4 One of the greatest defects of the English tongue, with regard to the verb, 
seems to be the want of an imperfect passive participle.' And yet he uses 
the imperfect participle in a passive sense as often as most writers." — 
Tickbourrts Dissertation on the English Verb. 

" Several other .expressions of this sort now and then occur, such as the 
14* 



1 62 SYNTAX. 

Rem. 13. — When the objective has the same form as the nominative, 
it should generally follow the verb that governs it ; but when the objective 
differs in form from the nominative, it may either precede or follow the 
governing verb ; as, " Caesar conquered the Britons ; " — " We have seen 
him ; " — " Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto 
you." 

Rule XTTT. — Same Case. 
§ 216. Intransitive and passive verbs have the same 
case after them as before them, when both words refer to 
the same person or thing ; as, " Society is the true sphere 
of human virtue;" — " They wished him to be their 
king ; " — u He soon became the leader of his party ;" — 
" He was chosen librarian ; " — u Homer has been styled 
the prince of poets." 

Rem. — In some instances the words so agreeing in case are both 
placed either before or after the verb ; as, " Are they friends ?" — 
" Friends they cannot be." 

Rule XIV. — Government of the Infinitive. 

§ 217. The infinitive mode may be governed by a verb, 
a noun, or an adjective;* as, "Strive to improve ;" — 
"I am in haste to return ;" — " The ship was ready to 
sail." 

Rem. 1. — The infinitive is often governed by than or as. The 
following are examples : — " An object so high as to be invisible ;" 

What is the rule respecting the same case ? Examples. Respecting 
the government of the infinitive % Examples. What conjunctions are 
frequently employed to govern the infinitive 1 Examples. 

new-fangled and most uncouth solecism, ' is being done,' for the good old 
English idiomatic expression ' is doing,' — an absurd periphrasis, driving out 
a pointed and pithy turn of the English language." — N. A. Review. 

* Several respectable grammarians treat the infinitive particle to as a 
preposition, governing the verb. See Comly, G. Brown, Bell, Snyder, and 
Fowle. 

" If to is here a preposition, it differs at least in one respect, from every 
other English preposition, and from the same word in other situations, in 
giving entire generality to the verb, — an effect which no preposition, as 
such, ever has, either on the verb, or any other part of speech. That it 
should assume this peculiarity in this particular connection only, is remark- 
able ; and that it should do this and at the same time retain the usual pro- 
perties of a preposition, seems very improbable." — Everest. 



TENSES. 163 

— " It is sometimes better to submit to injustice, than to resort to 
judicial proceedings." 

Hem. 2. — The infinitive is sometimes governed by an adverb; as, 
" The shipmen were about to flee." 

Rem. 3. — The infinitive is sometimes governed by a phrase or a sen- 
tence ; as, " Too needy ever to have leisure for attempting to execute any 
great and worthy design." — Southey. 

" In age, in infancy, from others' aid 
Is all our hope, to teach us to be kind." — Young. 

Rem. 4. — Tbe infinitive is sometimes used absolutely, having no 
dependence on any other word ; as, " It was, so to speak, a branch 
of the Executive Power." — N. Y. Review. 

Rem. 5. — A verb in the infinitive usually relates to son^e noun 
or pronoun.* Thus, in the sentence, M He desires to improve," the 
verb to improve relates to the pronoun he while it is governed by 
desires. 

Rem. 6. — When the infinitive follows the active voice 

of the verbs bid, dare, feel, see, let, make, need, and 

hear, the sign to is usually omitted ; as, "I felt my 

strength return ;" — " Nothing need be said ;" — " We 

heard the thunder roll ;" — " Pride guides his steps, and 

bids him shun the great." 

Rem. 7. — The sign of the infinitive is also omitted, in some instances, 
after the verbs have, behold, perceive, know, and help ; as, " Would they have 
us reject such an offer ? " 

Rule XV. — Tenses. 
§ 218. In the use of verbs, those tenses should be em- 
ployed which express correctly the sense intended. 

What of infinitives having no dependence on other words ? Examples. To 
what do infinitives relate ? Examples After what verbs is the sign of the 
infinitive usually omitted ? Examples. Give the rule for the employ- 
ment of the tenses. Illustrate its application. 

* Some teachers pay little attention to the government of the infinitive, 
while they direct their pupils to point out in all cases the noun or pronoun to 
which it relates. Others require their pupils to designate both government 
and relation. See Sanborn's Grammar, p. 144. 

"An infinitive refers to the noun which is the agent or subject of the 
action expressed by the infinitive. The reference is precisely of the same 
nature as that of a participle to its substantive, or of a finite verb to its 
nominative." — Parhhurst. 



164 VERBS. 

Rem. 1. — This rule is somewhat indefinite, but when taken in 
connection with the definitions and illustrations of the tenses given 
under Etymology, it will, in most cases, be a sufficient guide to the 
learner. It is violated in the following example : — "I expected to 
have seen you." The verb to have seen cannot here relate to a time 
prior to that denoted by the verb expected. It should not therefore 
be in the past perfect tense. Corrected : — "I expected to see 
you." 

False Syntax : — " When I was in France, I have often observed, 
that a great man has grown so insensibly heated by the court which 
was paid him on all sides, that he has been quite distracted." — Steele. 
" Columbus had fondly hoped, at one time, to have rendered the 
natives civilized, industrious, and tributary subjects of the crown." — 
Irving. " As Dr. Wallis hath long ago observed." — Lowth. " They 
continue with me now three days." — Matt. 15 : 32. 

Rem. 2. — The present tense is often employed in expressions 

that relate to the future ; as, " The world to come ; " — " He leaves 

in half an hour ; " — "I am about to write." 

Obs. — When a finite verb in the present tense, occurs in a sentence 
denoting futurity, it is generally preceded by before, as soon as, when, till, or 
after ; or accompanied by an adverb or modifying phrase denoting future 
time; as, " When the mail arrives, the letters will be delivered;" — 
14 Hold you the watch to-night % " " We do my lord ; " — " Ring the bell, at 
a quarter before eight.'''' 

Rem. 3. — When the infinitive present is connected with another 

verb, it generally relates to the same time as the verb with which it 

is joined ; as, " He began to write ; " — " He will begin to write" 

In the first of these examples to write corresponds in time with 

began, and is therefore past in respect to the time of speaking. In 

the other example, it relates to the same time that is expressed by 

will begin. 

Obs. — Sometimes, however, the infinitive denotes time subsequent 
to that expressed by the verb with which it is connected ; as, " He is to 
engage in teaching ; " — " iEneas went in search of an empire which was 
one day to command the world." 

Rem. 4. — In animated narrations, the present tense is occasionally 
used for the past ; as, " After the lapse of eight precious days, they again 

Correct the false syntax, and show why it is false. Give examples of verbs 
in the present tense, used in expressions that relate to the future. What of the 
infinitive present, used in connection with other verbs ? Illustrate. 



TENSES. 165 

weigh anchor : the coast of England recedes ; already they are unfurling 
their sails on the broad ocean, when the captain of the Speedwell, with his 
company, dismayed at the dangers of the enterprize, once more pretends 
that his ship is too weak for the service." — Bancroft. 

Rem. 5. — The future tense is frequently employed for the future per- 
fect ; as, K I shall finish my letter before the mail closes." 

Rem. 6. — When a verb in the present perfect tense is preceded by 
before, as soon as, when, till, or after, it usually performs the office of the 
future perfect ; as, " When he has finished his engagement, he shall be 
rewarded." 

Rem. 7. — The hypothetical form of the verb to be is used to express 
either present or indefinite time ; as, " If he were present, he would con- 
vince you of your error." See p. 101. 

Obs. — The past subjunctive of other verbs is often, employed in a 
similar manner ; as, " If he regarded his own interest, he would be more 
faithful to his employer." 

Rem. 8. — The past perfect subjunctive is often employed to express 
indefinite past time *, as, " I should have walked out if it had not 



Rem. 9. — In expressing general propositions which have no 
direct relation to time, the present tense of the verb should be em- 
ployed ; as, " The passion for power and superiority is universal." — 
Channing. 

Rem. 10. — The perfect participle of an irregular verb should not 
be used for the past tense, nor the past tense for the perfect partici- 
ple. The following expressions are therefore incorrect : — " The 
storm begun to subside ; " — "I done it in great haste ; " — " He was 
displeased to receive a letter wrote with so little care." Corrected : 
— "The storm began to subside ; " — "I did it in great haste ; " — 
" He was displeased to receive a letter written with so little care." 
This rule is also violated when the past tense of an irregular verb is 
used with an auxiliary. Thus, instead of saying " The sun has 
rose" we should say, " The sun has risen." ^ 

False Syntax : — " We are not condemned to toil through half a 
folio, to be convinced that the writer has broke his promise." — 
Johnson. " The champions having just began their career, the king 
stopped the combat." — Goldsmith. 

" Rapt into future times, the bard begun." — Pope. 

What tense is employed in general propositions, having no direct relation to 
time ? Examples. What is said respecting the use of the perfect participle 
and the past tense of an irregular verb f Illustrate. Correct the false syntax, 
and show why it is false. 



166 VERBS. 

Rule XVI. — Participles. 

§ 219. Participles relate to nouns or pronouns ; as, 
" He stood leaning on his spade, and gazing at the bright- 
ness in the west." * 

Rem. 1. — When the participle is preceded by the negative par- 
ticle un, it becomes an adjective, unless the verb from which it is 
formed admits the same prefix. The words untiring, unsought, un- 
seen, and unknown, are examples of this class of adjectives. But 
the words unbinding, unfolded, undone, etc., when used in the verbal 
sense, are to be regarded as participles, since they are formed 
regularly from the verbs unbind, unfold, undo, etc. 

Rem. 2. — Participles are often used in the sense of nouns ; as, 
" There was again the smacking of whips, the clattering of hoofs, and 
the glittering of harness." — Irving. 

Rem. 3. — Participles often perform, at the same time, the office 
of a noun and a verb ; as, " I could not avoid expressing my concern 
for the stranger." As a noun, expressing is in the objective case 
and governed by avoid. As a transitive verb, it governs the word 
concern. 

Rem. 4. — A participle is sometimes used absolutely, having no 
dependence on any other word ; as, " Properly speaking, there is 
no such thing as chance ; " — " This conduct, viewing it in the most 
favorable light, reflects discredit on his character." 

Rem. 5. — A participle sometimes relates to a sentence or phrase ; as 5 
" He had been strictly secured and guarded, owing to his former escape." 
— Walter Scott. 

" To do aught good never will be our task, 
But ever to do ill our sole delight, 
As being the contrary to his high will 
Whom we resist." — Milton. 
Rem. 6. — There are certain adjectives which are derived directly from 
verbs, and supply the place of passive participles. Their use is mostly 
confined to poetry. 

Examples : — " Regions consecrate to oldest time." — Wordsworth. 
" 'T is dedicate to ruin." — Coleridge. 

Give the rule for the agreement of participles. Examples. Participles 
preceded by the negative particle un. Examples of each class. Give examples 
of participial nouns. What double office do participles often perform ? Ex- 
amples. Give examples of participles used absolutely. : 



VERBS. 167 

■ 

" To save himself and household from amidst 
A world devote to universal wreck." — Milton. 
[For one of the uses of the imperfect participle, see Rule 12, Rem. 12.] 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

§ 220. Write exercises containing objectives governed by transi- 
tive verbs; — intransitive verbs governing objectives of kindred signi- 
fication ; — verbs having the same case after them as before them ; 

— verbs in the infinitive governed by verbs, nouns, and adjectives; 

— verbs in the infinitive used without the sign to ; — imperfect and 
perfect participles : — participial nouns. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

§221. "Evil communications corrupt good manners" — " Thy 
name shall be Abraham." 9 — " He shall be called John" — " I heard 
him relate the anecdote." — "I have written exercises, containing 
all the examples required? — " Conversation enriches the under- 
standing, but solitude is the school of genius." — Gibbon. " Napoleon 
was never known to change his opinion on any subject." — Alison. 
" The Puritans were men whose minds had derived a peculiar char- 
acter from the daily contemplation of superior beings and eternal 
interests." — Macaulay. 

§ 222. " The daily press first instructed men in their wants, and 
soon found that the eagerness of curiosity outstripped the power of 
gratifying it." — Story. " He that teaches us any thing which we 
knew not before, is undoubtedly to be reverenced as a master." — 
Johnson. " This universal pacification has hardly been thought of." 
— Channing. "It formed so important and singular a feature of 
their social economy, as to merit a much more particular notice than 
it has received." — Prescott. " He was offered an employment." — 
Campbell. "He lay like a warrior taking his rest." — Wolfe. "In 
the beginning they may be assailed by the clamor of self-interest, 
and frowned upon by the worshippers of expediency." — N. A. Re- 
view. " Many approximations have been made, and are now making, 
to the truth." — Lockhart. " We make provision for this life, as 
though it were never to have an end ; and for the other life, as 
though it were never to have a beginning." — Addison. " The desire 



168 SYNTAX. 

that our country should surpass all others, would not be criminal, did 
we understand in what respects it is most honorable for a nation to 
excel" — Charming. " To keep always praying aloud is plainly 
impossible," — G. Brown. 

Rule XYLT. — Adverbs. 

§ 223. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs; as, "Men frequently contend for trifles;" — 
" It was very thankfully received." 

Rem. 1. — An adverb is frequently used to modify a sentence or 
phrase.* 

Examples : — " Which is so at war] with nature." — Prof. Haddock. 
" The final debate on the resolution was postponed for nearly a 
month" — Wirt. "They introduced the Deity to human appre- 
hension, under an idea more personal, more determinate, more 
within its compass." — Paley. " The other productions of this inde- 
fatigable scholar, embrace a large circle of topics independently of his 
various treatises on philology and criticism." — Prescott. " Verily 
I say unto you, they have their reward." — Matt. 6: 2. 
Rem. 2. — An adverb is sometimes used to modify a preposition ;$ as, 
" He sailed nearly round the globe ; " — " He was wounded just below the 
ear." 

Rem. 3. — Adjectives should be employed to qualify nouns and 

pronouns, and adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

It is therefore incorrect to say, " She writes elegant." " Thine 

often infirmities." 

Obs. — There are, however, certain forms of expression in which ad- 
verbs bear a special relation to nouns or pronouns ;|] as, "Behold, I, 

Give the rule for adverbs. Examples. What are adverbs frequently 
used to modify, besides verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs? Examples. 
What distinction should be observed in the use of adjectives and adverbs ? 
Illustrate. 

* " The adverb does not always belong to any one single word ; nothing 
being more common than the relation of an adverb to a clause, all of whose 
words are taken as one word ; and almost or quite as frequently, an adverb 
stands in relation to a whole sentence." — Smart. 

f " Sometimes a preposition and a noun together have the signification of 
an adjective ; and, as such, the phrase may be qualified by an adverb ; as, 
doubly infaidt, — doubly criminal.' 1 '' — Parhhurst. 

X See Sanborn, Parkhurst, J. M. Putnam, Wilbur, Brace, Emmons, Golds- 
bury, and Goodenow. 

11 See Bullions, Allen and Cornwell, Brace, Butler, Badgley, and Web- 
ber. 



ADVERBS. 169 

even I, do bring a flood of waters." — Gen. 6 : 17. " For our gospel came 
not unto you in word only, but also in power." — 1 Thess. 1 : 5. 

E.Ei\r. 4. — The adverbs yea, yes, nay, no, and amen, are gen- 
erally used independently; as, "Will you go?" "No" — "Has 
the hour arrived ? " " Yes" 

Rem. 5. — Never is sometimes improperly used for ever; as, "They 
might be extirpated, were they never so many." Corrected: — "They 
might be extirpated, were they ever so many." 

Rem. 6. — The adverbs hither, thither, and whither, are now seldom 
employed except in grave discourse, their places being supplied, in com- 
mon writings, by here, there, and where; as, "It was dangerous to go 
there" — Irving. " Traders flocked there as to a fair." — Prescott. " With- 
out knowing where to go." — Paley. " When you come here" — Willis. 

Rem. 7. — Adverbs are sometimes used to supply the place of 

nouns. 

Examples : — " Till now they had paid no taxes." — A. H. Everett. 
" On the following day Columbus came to where the coast swept 
away to the northeast for many leagues." — Irving. " Save where 
the beetle wheels his droning flight." — Gray. " Till then who 
knew the force of those dire arms ? " — Milton. " The several 
sources from whence these pleasures are derived." — Addison. 
" From hence I was conducted up a staircase." — Irving. 

Obs. — At once, and by far, are in general use ; and the adver- 
bial phrases from hence, from thence, from whence, constitute an 
authorized idiom. But such expressions as from where, from there, 
to here, are seldom employed by the best prose writers. In poetry, 
their occurrence is more frequent. 

Rem. 8. — Where, an adverb of place, is sometimes improperly em- 
ployed without reference to place, for the phrase in which; as, " They 
framed a protestation, where [in which] they repeated all their former 
claims." 

Rem. 9. — The adverb there is often used for the sake of euphony, 
without any reference to place ; as, " There is an hour of peaceful rest." 
■ — W.B. Tappan. " There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin." — 
Campbell. When used in this sense, there is called an expletive adverb. 

Rem. 10. — The word all is frequently used as an adverb, in the sense 
of wholly ; as, 

" Yet our great enemy, 
All incorruptible, would on his throne 
Sit unpolluted." — Milton. 

What of the adverbs yea, yes, nay, no, and amen ? Examples. What part 
of speech are adverbs sometimes used to represent ? Examples. Which of 
the different fowns of expression named are authorized, and which are objec- 
tionable f 

15 



170 SYNTAX. 

Rem. 11, — A negation is properly expressed by the use of one 
negative only. The following sentence is therefore erroneous : — 
" I never did repent for doing good, 
Nor shall not now." — Shakspeare. 

Obs. 1. — Two negatives in the same clause are generally equivalent 
to an affirmative, and are sometimes elegantly employed to express a 
positive assertion ; as, " The pilot was not unacquainted with the coast ; » 

— " Nor did he pass wnmoved the gentle scene." 

" Nor did they not perceive the evil plight 
In which they were, or the fierce pain not feel." — Milton. 
The intervention of only, or some other word of kindred meaning, 
preserves the negation ; as, " He was not only e'/liberal, but covetous." 

Obs. 2. — A repetition of the same negative renders the negation 
more emphatic ; as, " I would never lay down my arms ; — never — never 

— never?- — Pitt. 

Rem. 12. — The adverb no is sometimes improperly used for not; as, 
" Whether he will or no, he must be a man of the nineteenth century." 
— Macaulay. 

Rem. 13. — Two or more words are sometimes used in connec- 
tion, as a compound adverb, or adverbial phrase. 

Examples : — " We will see about this matter by and by? — Irving. 
" Ishmael went forth to meet them, weeping all along as he went." 
— Jer. 41 : 6. "If we hope for what we are not likely to possess, 
we act and think in vain? — Addison. 

Rem. 14. — Adverbs should be placed in that situation which con- 
tributes most to the harmony and clearness of the sentence, and which 
accords best with the usage of the language. This rule is violated in 
the sentence, " Thoughts are only criminal, when they are first cho- 
sen and then voluntarily continued." As it stands, the adverb only 
properly qualifies criminal, whereas the author intended to have 
it qualify that portion of the sentence which follows the comma. 
Corrected : — " Thoughts are criminal, only when they are first cho- 
sen and then voluntarily continued." 

False Syntax: — "In following the trail of his enemies through 
the forest, the American Indian exhibits a degree of sagacity, which 
almost appears miraculous." — Alison. " There are certain miseries 
in idleness, which the idle can only conceive." — Johnson. " It not 
only has form but life." — N. A. Review. 

How is a negation properly expressed ? Give examples of tlie violation of 

this rule. What is an adverbial phrase ? Examples. What rule should 6r 

observed respecting the position of adverbs ? Illustrate. Correct the false syn- 
tax, and show why it is false. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 171 

q bs . i. _ An adverb should not be plaeed immediately after the 
infinitive particle to* This rule is violated in the following sen- 
tence : _ " Teach scholars to carefully scrutinize the sentiments ad- 
vanced in all the books they read." 

False Syntax : — " To make this sentence perspicuous it would be 
necessary to entirely remodel it" — Newman's Rhetoric. " It costs 
the pupil more to simply state the examples in such a form, than it 
does to perform them without any statement at all." — N. A. Review. 

q BSj 2. — The adverb enough is placed after the adjective which it 
modifies, and both the adjective and the adverb are placed after the noun ; 
as, " A house large enough for all." 

Rem. 15. — The words howsoever, whichsoever, and whatsoever*, are some- 
times divided by the intervention of another word ; as, " But surely this 
division, how long soever it has been received, is inadequate and falla- 
cious." — Johnson. " By what manner soever." — Wayland. 



Rule XVLLT. Conjunctions. 

§ 224. Conjunctions connect words or sentences ; as, 
" Idleness and Ignorance are the parents of many vices ; " 
— " He fled because he was afraid." 

Rem. 1. — Relative pronouns and conjunctive Nad verbs are also 
employed to perform the office of connectives. 

Obs. 1. — In the compound sentence, "He who expects much, 
will often be disappointed," the relative who is the subject of the 
verb expects in one clause, and relates to the pronoun he, which is 
the subject of will be disappointed in the other clause. The con- 
nection expressed by who in this example, and by relative pronouns 
generally, is quite as close as that expressed by conjunctions. See 
§ 116, Rem. 2. 

Obs. 2. — Many conjunctive adverbs modify the two verbs em- 
braced in the different clauses which they connect ; as, " When he 

What of the position of adverbs modifying infinitives ? Correct the false 
syntax, and show why it is false. Give the rule respecting conjunctions. 
Examples. What other classes of ivords are also employed as connectives ? 
Illustrate the connective office of a relative pronoun. Two-fold modifying 
power of many conjunctive adverbs. Examples. 

* See Davis, Parkhurst, Perley, and Kennion. 



172 SYNTAX, 

had delivered his message lie departed ;" — " Fame may give praise, 
while it withholds esteem." 

Obs. 3. — A conjunctive adverb used to supply the place of a 
preposition and a relative pronoun, is called a relative adverb ; as, 
" The shepherd leaves his mossy cottage, where [in whicK] he dwells 
in peace ; " — " The colonies had now reached that stage in their 
growth, when the difficult problem of colonial government must be 
solved." 

Rem. 2. — There are certain idiomatic forms of expression in which the 
connection between different clauses is implied in the relation which they 
bear to each other in sense; as, " In this last case, the more apt and strik- 
ing is the analogy suggested, the more will it have of an artificial appear- 
ance." — Whately. " Whatever was his predominant inclination, neither 
hope nor fear hindered him from complying with it." — Johnson. " Sad as 
his story is, it is not altogether mournful." — Southey. 

Rem. 3. — The conjunction that often performs the office of a pronoun 
or substitute. Thus, in the sentence, " I know that he will return," that 
represents the clause he will return, and is the object of the transitive verb 
know. See Rem. 11. 

Obs. 1. — The conjunction that is often suppressed when the connection 
of the different clauses is obvious ; as, " But Brutus says he was ambi- 
tious." — Shakspeare. 

Obs. 2. — When, however, the connection of the clauses is less intimate, 
the omission of that is objectionable ; as, " His ingenuity was such [that] 
he could form letters, make types and wood cuts, and engrave vignettes 
in copper." — Bancroft. 

Rem. 4. — Two or more words are sometimes used together as a 

compound conjunction or conjunctive phrase. 

Examples : — " It has been observed that happiness, as well as virtue, 
consists in mediocrity." — Johnson. "The writer, by whom the 
noble features of our scenery shall be sketched with a glowing 
pencil, and the peculiarities of our character seized with delicate 
perception, cannot mount so entirely and rapidly to success, but 
that ten years will add new millions to the number of his read- 
ers." — E. Everett. 
Obs. — Many expressions of this class are elliptical ; but it is generally 
better not to attempt to supply the words omitted, unless they are obvi- 
ously implied. 

CORRESPONDING CONJUNCTIONS. 
Rem. 5. — Some conjunctions are composed of two corresponding 
words. The following list embraces most of this class of connectives, 
and exhibits the correct mode of employing them : — 

What is a relative adverb f Examples. Compound conjunctions. Ex- 
amples. Corresponding conjunctions. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 173 

Both — and : " It is the work of a mind fitted both for minute 
researches and for large speculations." — Macaulay. 

Though, although — yet, still, nevertheless: " Though deep, yet 
clear, though gentle, yet not dull ; " — " Though a thousand rivers 
discharge themselves into the ocean, still it is never full." 
Whether — or : " Whether it were I or they." 
Either — or : " No leave ask'st thou of either wind or tide." 
Neither — nor : " Neither act nor promise hastily." 
Obs. — The poets frequently use or — or for either — or, and nor 

— nor for neither — < nor ; as, 

" Not to be tempted from her tender task, 

Or [either'] by sharp hunger, or by smooth delight." — Thomson. 
" Nor [neither] eye nor listening ear an object finds." — Young. 
Rem. 6. — Some conjunctions are used in correspondence with 
adverbs or adjectives. The following are the principle connectives 
of this class : — 

.4s — as, so : " She is as amiable as her sister ; " — " As he excels 
in virtue, so he rises in estimation." 

So — as: " No riches make one so happy as a clear conscience." 

— " Speak so as to be understood." 

So — that, expressing a consequence : " She speaks so low that no 
one can hear what she is saying." 

Not only — but, but also : " He was not only prudent, but also 
industrious." 

Such — as : " There never was such a time as the present." 

Such — that : " Such is the emptiness of human enjoyment, that 
we are always impatient of the present." 

More, sooner, etc. — than : " They have more than heart could 
wish ; " — " The Greeks were braver than the Persians." 

Obs. — Than should be used to correspond with rather and with 
all comparatives ; as, " Receive knowledge rather than choice gold ; " 

What conjunction is used to correspond with both ? Give an example. 
[The teacher should proceed in a similar manner through the list of 
corresponding conjunctions, and repeat the exercise till the pupils are 
able to distinguish readily the terms which properly correspond with 
each other. What words are employed by the poets to coirespond with or 
and nor? Examples. With wimtvsords does than properly coirespond? 
Examples. 

15* 



174 SYNTAX. 

— H Wisdom is better than rubies." The clause following other* is 
also more properly introduced by than, though good writers occa- 
sionally employ some other term. 

Rem. 7. — The negatives no, not, etc., may he followed by either or or 
nor. The use of nor serves to repeat the negation ; and there are many 
cases in which it is decidedly preferable to or.t 

Examples : — " There are no more continents or worlds to be reveal- 
ed." — E. Everett. " It is not by accuracy or profundity, that men 
become masters of great assemblies." — Macaulay. " I know not 
where to begin, nor where to end." — - E. Everett. " He never con- 
vinces the reason, noi* fills the imagination, nor touches the heart." 
— Macaulay. "Let not your fancy, nor your excited feelings lead 
you captive." — B. B. Edwards. " The exiles of New England 
saw not before them either a home or a country." — Story. 

Rem. 8. — The conjunction as, used in connection with an adjec- 
tive or adverb in the positive degree, is sometimes improperly coupled 
with a comparative, and followed by than; as, " The latest posterity 
will listen with as much, or even greater pleasure than their contem- 
poraries." — A. H. Everett. Corrected : — " The latest posterity will 
listen with as much pleasure as their contemporaries, or even greater." 

Correct Example : — "I am as well as you have ever known me 
in a time of much trouble, and even better." — Cowper. 

False Syntax : — "A vision came before him, as constant and 
more terrible than that from which he had escaped." — Dickens. 
"I have proceeded in the revisal, as far, and somewhat farther than 
the fifteenth book." — Cowper. 

Rem. 9. — The conjunction or is sometimes employed to connect 
words that are in apposition ; as, " No disease of the mind can more 
fatally disable it from benevolence, than ill-humor or peevishness! 9 
Peevishness is not here a distinct thing from ill-humor, but merely 
another term for the same idea. 

Rem. 10. — The word as has a variety of uses, some of which 
deserve particular notice. It is employed, — 

1. In connection with certain prepositions ; as, " It would have 

Improper use of than to correspond with as. Correct the false syntax and 
shoiv why it is false. What peculiar office does or sometimes perform, ? Illus- 
trate. What peculiar uses of as are mentioned? Give examples of each kind. 

* " In the book of Common Prayer, we have, ' Thou shalt have no other 
Gods but me ; ' and the same expression occurs in Addison, Swift, and 
other contemporary writers. Usage, however, seems of late to have decided 
almost universally in favor of than." — Dr. Crombie. 

f See Burns's Grammar. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 175 

been idle for the philosopher to form conjectures, as to the 
direction which the kindling genius of the age was to assume." 

— E. Everett. " As for the rest of those who have written 
against me, they deserve not the least notice." — Dryden. 

2. To connect nouns and pronouns which are in apposition; as 
" Nor ought we, as* citizens, to acquiesce in an injurious act." 

— Charming. See also Rule 2, Rem. 7. 

3. To connect adjectives and participles with the nouns or pro- 
nouns to which they belong ; as, " The infantry was regarded 
as comparatively worthless." — Macaulay. " Their presence 
was of great moment, as giving consideration to the enter- 
prise." — Prescott. 

Rem. 11. — The conjunction thai is often employed to introduce a sen- 
tence or clause, which is used as a noun in the nominative or objective 
case ; as, " That the idea of glory should be associated strongly with military 
exploits, ought not to be wondered at." — Charming, 

Rem. 12. — The conjunction so is occasionally used in the sense of if 
or provided that ; as, " It signifies little whether it be very well executed 
or not, so it be reasonably well done, and without any glaring omissions 
or errors." — Brougham. 

Rem. 13. — The word than was formerly employed as a preposition, 
and still retains this character in the phrase than whom ;f as, " There sat 
a patriot sage, than whom the English language does not possess a better 
writer." — E. Everett. 

" Which, when Beelzebub perceived, than whom, 
Satan except, none higher sat, with grave 
Aspect he rose."— Milton. 
" Felon unwhipp'd ! than whom in yonder cells 
Full many a groaning wretch less guilty dwells." — Sprague. 
Obs. — The phrase than which is also sometimes used in a similar man- 
ner ; as, " A work, than which the age has certainly produced none more 
sure of bequeathing its author's name to the admiration of future times." 

— J. G. Palfrey. 

Rem. 14. — The word both should not be used with reference to 
more than two objects or classes of objects. The following example 
is therefore erroneous : — " He paid his contributions to literary un- 
dertakings, and assisted both the Tatler, Spectator, and Guardian." 

— Johnson. Both should be omitted. 

What care should be observed in the use of the word both ? Illustrate. 

* Several respectable grammarians entertain the opinion that as in this 
and similar examples is a preposition, governing the following noun. See 
Fuller, J. M. Putnam, Sanborn, Cobb, and Emmons. 

f " The comparative agree th to the parts compared, by adding this pre- 
position, than." — Ben Johnson; London, 1640. (See also Crombie, 
Priestlev, Wm. Ward, Bieknell, Meilan, and Lindsav.) 



176 SYNTAX. 

Rem. 15. — The conjunctions than and as are frequently followed 
by an ellipsis of one or more words required to complete the con- 
struction ; as, " More than one [ ] of his plays are devoted exclu- 
sively to its illustration." — Prescoit. " He was the father of all 
such as [ ] handle the harp and organ." — Gen. 4 : 21. 

Obs. — Examples sometimes occur in which it is impossible to supply 
the ellipsis satisfactorily, while the sense is clearly conveyed by the ex- 
pression in its abridged form. In parsing such examples, it would be 
better for the pupil to refer to the foregoing remark, and not attempt to 
supply words which are altogether rejected by the idiom of the language. 
Thus, in the first example above, the word one may be parsed as the sub- 
ject of a verb understood, without naming any particular word to complete 
the construction. But in the second example, the ellipsis is more readily 
supplied. " He was the father of all such as [those who] handle the harp 
and organ." In parsing examples of this class, it is better to supply the 
ellipsis. See § 293. 

Rule XIX. — Prepositions — Relation. 

§ 225. Prepositions connect words and show the rela- 
tion between them. 

Rem. 1. — In parsing a preposition, both terms of the relation 
expressed by it should be pointed out. One of these terms is 
always the object of 'the preposition ; the other may be a verb, an 
adjective, a noun, or an adverb. In the sentence, " He travelled 
for pleasure," for shows the relation between pleasure and the verb 
travelled. In the sentence, " They were destitute of food" of shows 
the relation between food and the adjective destitute. In the sen- 
tence, " This is an age of improvement," of shows the relation be- 
tween improvement and the noun age. In the sentence, " Ambassa- 
dors were sent previously to the declaration," to shows the relation 
between declaration and the adverb previously. 

Obs. — There are certain elliptical forms of speech in which the ante- 
cedent term of relation is omitted ; as, 

" for the voice and fire of seraphim, 
To sing thy glories with devotion due ! " — Beattie. 

Rem 2. — A preposition and its object should be so placed as to 

leave no ambiguity in regard to the words which the preposition is 

intended to connect. The following sentence is faulty in this res- 

By what are t/ie conjunctions than and as frequently followed? Examples. 
Qive the rule for the relation expressed by prepositions. Illustrate. What 
rule is given respecting the position of a preposition and its object ? 



PREPOSITIONS. 177 

pect : — c - The message was communicated by an agent, who had 
never before discharged any important office of trust, in compliance 
with the instructions of the executive.''' In is here intended to show 
the relation between was communicated and compliance ; whereas the 
present arrangement indicates that it expresses the relation between 
had discharged and compliance. Corrected : — " The message was 
communicated in compliance with the instructions of the executive, 
by an agent who had never before discharged any important office 
of trust." 

Rem. 3. — The use of two prepositions before a single noun, though 
inelegant, often contributes to perspicuity and brevity, and has the sanc- 
tion of many good writers. 

Examples: — "Men's passions and interests mix with, and are ex- 
pressed in, the decisions of the intellect." — Charming. " They were 
never revealed to, nor confronted with, the prisoner." — Prescoit. 
u We have never uttered a word in this Journal, either in advocacy 
of, or in opposition to, any particular religious sect, or political 
party amongst us." — Horace. Mann. 

Obs. — The same remark applies also to the use both of a preposition 
and a transitive verb before a single object. 

Examples : — " It was created to influence, and not solely to be influ- 
enced by, the opinions of the community." — N. A. Review. " And 
may readily associate with, and promote either." — Dr. Hopkins. 
" We are so made as to be capable, not only of perceiving, but also 
of being pleased with, or pained, by, the various objects by which 
— we are surrounded." — Wayland. 

Rem. 4. — Two or more words are sometimes used together as 
a compound preposition ; as, " From between the arcades, the eye 
glances up to a bit of blue sky, or a passing cloud." — Irving. " Over 
against this church stands a large hospital." — Addison. 

Rem. 5. — Care should be taken to employ such prepositions as 
express clearly and precisely the relations intended. 

Correct Examples : — " He went to, JSTew York ;" — " He arrived 
at Liverpool;" — "He rode into the country;" — "He resides in 
London;" — "He walks with a staff by moonlight;" — "The mind 
is sure to revolt from the humiliation of being thus moulded and 
fashioned, in respect to its feelings, at the pleasure of another." — 
Whately. 

False Syntax: — " We differ entirely with Lord Brougham." — 
N. Y. Review. " The posthumous volumes appeared in considerable 

Illustrate. Give examples of compound prepositions. What care should be 
observed in the choice of prepositions ? Correct the false syntax, and show 
why it is false. . 



178 SYNTAX. 

intervals." — Ilallam. " It was not evident what deity or what form 
of worship they had substituted to the gods and temples of an- 
tiquity." — Gibbon. 

Rule XX. — Prepositions. — Government. 

§ 226. Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, 
u They came to us in the spirit of kindness ; " — "From 
him that is needy, turn not away." 

Rem. 1 . — A preposition should never be introduced to govern a word 
which is properly the object of a transitive verb. Thus, instead of say- 
ing, " We delight to contemplate on the wonders of creation," we should 
say, " We delight to contemplate the wonders of creation." 

Rem. 2. — Respecting the ellipsis of prepositions, no definite rule can 
be given. Care should be taken to conform to the usage of good writers. 
In the following sentence the preposition is improperly omitted: — 
" Chemistry and Botany will be studied the Spring term." — Corrected : — 
" Chemistry and Botany will be studied during the Spring term." The 
following is also objectionable : — " It is worthy the consideration of all." 
— N. A. Review. Of should be inserted after worthy. See § 293. 

Rem. 3. — A noun or pronoun following like, unlike, near, or nigh, is 
often governed by a preposition understood ; * as " Solomon, in all his 
glory, was not arrayed like [to] one of these ;" — " The house stands near 
[to] a river." 

Rem. 4. — The word save is frequently used to perform the office of a 
preposition; as, 

" And all desisted, all save him alone." — Wordsworth. 
Rem. 5. — But1[ is sometimes employed as a preposition, in the sense 

What do prepositions govern ? Examples. Nouns and pronouns following 
the words like, unlike, and nigh. Examples. The word save. Examples. 

' * Like, unlike, near and nigh, are classed by some grammarians with 
prepositions. 

" We have not placed them with the prepositions, for four reasons ; (1.) 
because they are sometimes compared; (2.) because they sometimes have 
adverbs evidently relating to them ; (3.) because the preposition to or unto is 
sometimes expressed after them ; and, (4.) because the words which usually 
stand for them in the learned languages, are clearly adjectives.' 1 '' — G. Brown. 

f The use of but as a preposition is discountenanced by G. Brown, San- 
born, Murray, S. Oliver, and several other grammarians. See also an able 
article in the Massachusetts Common School Journal, vol. ii., p. 19. 

The use of but as a preposition is approved by J. E. Worcester, John 
Walker, R. C. Smith, Pickett, Hiley, Angus, Lynde, Hull, Powers, Spear, 
Farnum, Fowle, Goldsbury, Perley, Cobb, Badgley, Cooper, Jones, Davis, 
Beall, Hendrick, Hazen, Goodenow, and other authors. 

" It is a preposition where we say, ' I saw no one but him ;' yet we may 
by an ellipsis still explain it as a conjunction, — 'I saw no one but [I saw] 
him ;' — or, by another ellipsis, as an adverb, — { I saw no one [I saw] but 
him, that is, only ' him.' The simplest explanation, or that which dispenses 
with the contrived ellipsis, is the best." — Smart. 



INTERJECTIONS. 179 

of except ; as, " No one can appreciate the beauty and majesty of the 
heavens, but him who has been shut out from every other prospect for 
days and weeks together." — Graham's Magazine. 

" The boy stood on the burning deck, 
Whence all but him had fled." — Hemans. 
Rem. 6. — " O'clock " is an elliptical expression, contracted from " Of 
the clock."* 



Rule XXI. — Interjections. 

§ 227. Interjections have no grammatical relation to 
the other words of a sentence ; as, " These were delight- 
ful days ; but, alas ! they are no more." 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

§ 228. Write exercises containing examples of adverbs ; — con- 
junctions ; — conjunctive adverbs modifying verbs in two different 
clauses ; — a relative adverb ; — several examples of corresponding 
conjunctions ; — examples of prepositions and interjections. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Model. 

§ 229. " He came in haste, and soon returned." 

In is a preposition, expressing the relation of the noun haste to the 
verb came. Prepositions connect words and show the relation be- 
tween them. 

And is a conjunction, connecting the two clauses. He came and [he] re- 
turned. Conjunctions connect words or sentences. 

Soon is an adverb, modifying the sense of the verb returned. Adverbs 
modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

" He is very cautious. 91 — " Health and plenty cheer the laboring 
swain. 19 — " The weakest kind of fruit drops soonest to the ground 91 
— Shakspeare. " If men see our faults, they will talk among them- 
selves^ though we refuse to let them talk to us. 99 — " War is to be 
ranked among the most dreadful calamities which fall on a guilty 
world 19 — Channing. 

" Solitude ! where are the charms 
That sages have seen in thy facei 91 — Cowper. 

What is the rule respecting interjections 1 Examples. 

* " At seven of the clock.''' — Spectator. " By five of the clock.'''' — Shaks- 
peare. * 



180 SYNTAX. 

§ 230. " It is not true, that the state of public morals and virtue is 

as elevated as that of the individuals who compose a community." 

B. B. Edwards. " When a great principle is at stake, we must learn 
to dismiss all minor differences." — Ibid. " Now Moses kept theyfocfc 
of Jethm, his father-in-law." —Exodus 3:1. "How little opportu- 
nity for mental improvement do even* they possess ! " — E. Everett. 
" He tfz<i not, like a leader, get up on an eminence, and from thence 
survey the subject in all its bearings." — Brougham, " Their road 
lay through the beautiful land wAere they AaJ fee/i so long lingering." 
• — Prescott. " The sanctity of private property was recognized, as 
the surest guaranty of order and abundance." — Bancroft. 
" Do^ he come from wfore the swords flashed high ? " — Hemans. 

" We took our seats 
By man?/ a cottage-hearth, where he received 
The welcome of an inmate come from far." — Wordsworth. 
" iVbr pride nor poverty dares come 
Within that refuge-house, the tomb." — Croly. 
" Liberty, as we/£ as religion, has too deep an interest in the 
change which is to be effected." — Prof C. Dewey. "As to the 
question of abstract right, I should hardly undertake its discussion 
at this time." — Dana. " I have all along gone on the ground of 
the mutual influence of the private upon the public, and the public 
upon the private relation." — Ibid. " Nor is this enterprise to be 
scoffed at as hopeless." — Channing. "It was my good fortune to 
meet in sl dinner party, with more men of celebrity in science or 
polite literature, than are commonly found collected round the same 
table." — Coleridge. 

Rule XXII. — General Rule. 
§ 231. The different parts of a sentence should be 
made to harmonize with one another ; and the several 
clauses should be so constructed and arranged as to 
express clearly the various relations, connections, and 
dependences intended, according to the best usages of 
the language. 
Repeat the general rule of Syntax. 

* See Rule 17, Rem. 3, Obs. 



GENERAL RULE. 181 

Rem. 1. — This rule is sufficiently comprehensive to embrace all the 
different forms of construction in the language. It is, however, too 
general to afford special guidance to learners, and should be applied 
only in cases for which no definite rule is given. 

Rem. 2. — The ab verbs rather and better are often used in connection 

with the auxiliary had; as, "I had rather remain :" — " He had better 

return." These forms of expression are anomalous, but their use in the 

familiar style is too well established to be controverted. Good authors 

sometimes employ them also in elevated writings, but this practice is not 

to be recommended. 

Examples: — "You are therefore to consider whether you had rather 

oblige than receive an obligation." — Spectator. "Practices which 

had much better be inferred from general rules." — N. A. Review. 

" They had rather part with life, than bear the thought of surviving 

all that made life dear to them." — Hazlitt. 

Rem. 3. — The expressions, " had as lief," " had like," and " had ought," 

are anomalous and inelegant, and should be carefully avoided. Erroneous 

examples : — " More serious consequences had like to have resulted." — 

Prescott. " I had as lief the town-crier spoke my lines." — Shakspeare. 

False Syntax, under the General Rule. 

" It belonged to that peculiar class of poetry, which never has, 
and never will awaken sympathy in the universal heart." — JST. A. 
Review. 

" Among all the animals upon which nature has impressed de- 
formity and horror, there is none whom he durst not encounter." — 
Johnson. 

" The sun looketh forth from the halls of the morning, 
And flushes the clouds that begirt his career." — W. G. Clark. 

" The manner in which these essays were given to the world, on 
separate sheets, and with an interval of a few days between the 
publication of each, distinguished them from every thing of the kind 
which had preceded them." — N. A. Review. 

" Domestic society is the seminary of the social affections, the 
cradle of sensibility, where the first elements are acquired of that 
tenderness and humanity which cement mankind together; and 
which, were they entirely extinguished, the whole fabric of social 
institutions would be dissolved" — Hall. 

" Deliver me from the hand of strange children, whose mouth 
speaketh vanity, and their right hand is a right hand of falsehood." 
— -Ps. 144 : 11. 

" I have only touched on these several heads, which every one 

Correct the false syntax, and show why it is false. 

16 



182 SYNTAX. 

who is conversant in discourses of this nature will easily enlarge 
upon in his own thoughts, and draw conclusions from them which 
may be useful to him in the conduct of his life." — Spectator. 

" The perplexity that attends a multiplicity of criticisms by 
various hands, many of which are sure to be futile, many of them 
ill-founded, and some of them contradictory to others, is inconceiv- 
able." — Cowper. 

" The greatest masters of critical learning differ among one an- 
other." — Spectator. 

" Thus, oft by mariners are shown 
Earl Godwin's castles overflown." — Swift. 



GENERAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

§ 232. " The happiness of life is made up of an infinite number of 
little things, and not of startling events and great emotions ; and he 
who daily and hourly diffuses pleasure around him by kind offices, 
franks alutations, and cheerful looks, deserves as well of his species, 
as he, who, neglecting or despising all these, makes up for it by occa- 
sional acts of generosity, justice, or benevolence." — G. S. Hillard. 

" It were, indeed, a bold task to venture to draw into comparison 
the relative merits of Jay and Hamilton." — Dr. Hawks. 

" Success being now hopeless, preparations were made for & re- 
treat." — Alison. 

" The name of a mother ; — what a long history does it bring with 
it of smiles and words of mildness, of tears shed by night and of sigh- 
ings at the morning dawn, of love unrequited, of cares for which 
there can be no recompense on earth." — Prof. E. A. Park. 

" How feeble were the attempts at planting towns, is evident from 
the nature of the tenure by which the lands near the Saco were 
held." — Bancroft. 

" The language and literature, as well as the history of Spain, 
have, till within a few years past, attracted little attention in the United 
States ; a neglect which would be a subject of the greater reproach 
to us, ?y*we could not find some apology for it in the less pardonable 
indifference of other nations, who have more leisure to indulge 
themselves in the pleasures of literature than falls to the lot of the 
ever busy inhabitants of the United States." — N. Y. Review. 



GENERAL EXERCISES. 188 

" When events are made familiar to us by history, we are per- 
haps disposed to undervalue the wisdom that foretold them." — Th. 
Campbell. 

" Fortune, friends, kindred, home, — all were gone." — Prescott. 

M This spirit of knight-errantry might lead us to undervalue his 
talents as a general,* and to regard him f merely in the light of a 
lucky adventurer." — Ibid. 

" There leviathan, 
Hug est of living creatures, on the deep 
Stretched like a promontory, sleeps or swims, 
And seems a moving land." — Milton. 

li But now the door is opened soft and slow." — Prof. Wilson. 

" We all of us feel, that virtue is not something adopted from ne- 
cessity." — Channing. 

" Sir William Berkley was elected governor." — Bancroft. 

u I have little doubt, but that the contempt with which a plough- 
man would look down upon me for not knowing oats from barley, 
would transcend that of an astronomer at my not being able to dis- 
tinguish between Cassiopeia and Ursa Major." — Prof. Wilson. 

" No farther steps for procuring his release were taken at this time ; 
either because the means for defraying the legal expenses could not 
be raised ; or, tvhich is quite as probable, because it was certain that 
Bunyan, thinking himself in conscience bound to preach in defiance 
of the law, would soon have made his case worse than it then was." — 
Southey. 

" This court was composed of three officers, than whom none are 
more distinguished in our naval service." — N. A. Review. 

" Of what immense benefit had it been to England in all subse- 
quent ages, if her Elizabethan era hadheen a Christian era: if the 
great men who then toiled in the fields of knowledge, had all been 
Boyles and Miltons" — B. B. Edwards. 

" If Christianity may be said to have given a permanent elevation 
to woman as an intellectual and moral being ; it is as true, that the 
present age, above all others, has given play to her genius, and 
taught us to reverence its influence." — Story. 

" The private wars of the nobles with each other, were the frst cir- 

# See Kule 2, Rem. 7. t Cortes. 



184 SYNTAX. 

cumstance which renewed the courage and revived the energy of 
the feudal barons." — Alison. 

" To be a foreigner,* was always in England a reason of dislike." 
— Johnson. 

" The mind courses to and fro through the past, and casts itself 
into the future" — Am. Quart. Review. 

" The rill is tuneless to his ear who feels 
No harmony within ; the south wind steals 
^4s ^ZenZ as unseen, amongst the leaves. 
Who has no inward beauty, none perceives, 
Though all around is beautiful." — Dana. 

" Nine times the space that measures day and night 
To mortal men, he with his horrid crew 
Lay vanquished." — Milton. 



ANALYSIS.! 

[It is particularly desirable that pupils should proceed as early as 
practicable from the formalities of common parsing, to the more impor- 
tant exercise of analyzing critically the structure of language. The me- 
chanical routine of technical parsing is peculiarly liable to become monoto- 
nous and dull, while the practice of explaining the various relations and 
offices of words in a sentence, is adapted to call the mind of the learner 
into constant and vigorous action, and can hardly fail of exciting the 
deepest interest.] 

§ 233. The analysis of a sentence consists in resolving 
it into its constituent parts, and pointing out their several 
relations, connections, and dependences. 

§ 234. Every simple sentence consists essentially of two 
parts ; — a subject and a predicate. The subject is that 
of which something is affirmed ; and the predicate is that 
which is affirmed of the subject. 

In what does the analysis of a sentence consist ? Of what does every 
simple sentence consist ? Define the subject and the predicate. 

* See Rule 4, Rem. 2. 

f Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar, Kiihner's and Crosby's Greek 
Grammar, De Sacy's General Grammar, and Crane's English Grammar. 



ANALYSIS. 185 

§ 235. The subject and predicate may be distinguished 
as either grammatical or logical.* 

The grammatical subject is a noun, or some word, 
phrase, or sentence, used as a noun. 

Examples : — " No man was ever great by imitation." — Johnson. 
" To tell our own secrets, is generally folly." — Ibid. " Who can 
understand his errors." — Ps. 19 : 12. " That you have wronged me, 
doth appear in this." — Shah 

The logical subject includes all those words which are 
employed to express the whole idea of the subject. 

Examples : — " No man was ever great by imitation." — " To tell our 
own secrets, is generally folly." — * The desire of being pleased, is 
universal." 

The grammatical predicate is a finite verb.f 

Examples : — " No genius was ever blasted by the breath of critics." — 
Johnson. " Malice often bears down truth." — Ibid. " We dwell 
with pious fondness on the characters and virtues of the departed." 

— Story. 

The logical predicate includes all those words which are 
employed to express the whole idea of the predicate. 

Examples: — "No genius was ever blasted by the breath of critics. 11 — 
" Malice often bears down truth." — " The discriminating power of 
conscience is improved by reflecting upon the moral character of our 
•■ actions." — Wayland. " 

What is the grammatical subject ? Examples. What is the logical 
subject ? Examples. What is the grammatical predicate ? Examples, 
The logical predicate. Examples. 

# The logical subject and logical predicate are often called the modified 
subject and modified predicate. The terms logical subject and logical predi- 
cate were introduced by De Sacy. 

f Many grammarians still adhere to the principle, that the grammatical 
predicate may consist of a noun or an adjective, in connection with the 
verb to be. Thus, in the sentence, " Snow is white," it is said that is does 
not express what is asserted of snow, and therefore the grammatical predi- 
cate is not properly is, but is white. In the sentence, " He has friends," we 
might, with equal propriety, say that the word has does not express what is 
asserted of he, and therefore the grammatical predicate is not properly has, 
but has friends. This mode of reasoning proves too much, and therefore 
proves nothing. It would destroy at once all distinction between the gram- 
matical and the logical predicate. 

16* 



186 SYNTAX. 

Rem. 1. — The grammatical subject and predicate are often the same 
as the logical. Thus, in the sentence, " Time flies,' 1 the whole idea of the 
subject is expressed by the noun Time, and the whole idea of the predi- 
cate, by the verb flies. Time is therefore both the grammatical and the 
logical subject, and flies both the grammatical and the logical predicate. 

Rem. 2. — The adjuncts of the subject and predicate may 

themselves be distinguished as either grammatical or logical. Thus, 

in the sentence, " We are inclined to believe those who have never 

deceived us," the grammatical object of to believe is those, and the 

logical object is, those who have never deceived us. So also, in the 

sentence, "Neither genius nor practice will always supply a hasty 

writer with the most proper diction," the grammatical object of with 

is diction, while the logical object is the most proper diction. See 

§ 239, Rem. 

§ 236. The subject and the predicate may also be either simple or 
compound. 

A simple subject is a single noun, or a word or phrase used as a 
noun, either standing by itself or accompanied by modifying ad- 
juncts ; as, " The pride of wit has kept ages busy in the discussion 
of useless questions." — Johnson. In this sentence, the simple gram- 
matical subject is pride, and the simple logical subject is the pride 
of wit. 

Rem. — The learner will observe that words which are to be parsed 
grammatically as modifying the subject, often belong logically to the predi- 
cate. Thus, in the sentence, " The fields are green," the word green be- 
longs grammatically to the subject and logically to the predicate. 

A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects ; as, 
" Wild beasts and savage Indians lurked in the ravines." The com- 
pound grammatical subject, in this sentence, consists of the words 
beasts and Indians. The compound logical subject embraces the 
phrases wild beasts and savage Indians. 

A simple predicate is a single verb, either standing alone or ac- 
companied by modifying adjuncts ; as, " No genius was ever blasted 
by the breath of critics." The simple grammatical predicate, in this 
sentence, is ivas blasted, and the simple logical predicate is was ever 
blasted by the breath of critics. 

Explain the application of the terms logical and grammatical to the 
adjuncts of the subject and predicate. What is a simple subject ? Exam- 
ples. A compound subject ? Examples. A simple predicate ? Examples. 



EXERCISES. 187 

A compound predicate consists of two or more simple predicates ; 
as, " Men overpowered by distress, eagerly listen to the first offers of 
relief , close with every scheme, and believe every promise" — John- 
son. In this sentence, the compound grammatical predicate embraces 
the words, listen, close, and believe. The compound logical predicate 
embraces all the words that are expressed in Italics. 

EXEECISES. 
§ 237. " Wisdom is worthy of all diligence." — " Anger 
and haste hinder good counsel." — " Pharaoh and his host 
were drowned in the Red Sea." — " The Roman empire fell 
by its own corruptions." — " The city was besieged and 
taken." — " The violence of the storm and the darkness of 
the night, prevented all approach to the ship, and rendered 
our situation truly alarming." 

Point out the grammatical and the logical subjects and predicates in the 
foregoing sentences. Which of them are simple, and which compound ? 

Modifications of the Grammatical Subject. 

§ 238. A grammatical subject may be modified in the following 
different ways : — 

1 . By an apposition noun, with its modifying adjuncts ; as, " Ro- 
mulus, the founder of Rome, slew his brother." 

Rem. — As the grammatical subject and predicate maybe used either 
with or without modifying adjuncts ; so also a word employed to modify 
the grammatical subject or predicate, may itself be used either with or 
without modification by other words. Thus, in the sentence, " Romulus, 
the founder of Rome, slew his brother," the word founder, which is in ap- 
position with Romulus, is itself modified by the adjuncts the and of Rome. 
But in the sentence, " Good men are esteemed," the word good, which 
modifies men, is itself unmodified. 

2. By the object of a preposition, with its modifying adjuncts ; as, 
" The report of this unfortunate occurrence soon reached our ears." 

3. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive ; as, " His departure 
was delayed." 

A compound predicate ? Examples. Wliat are the different ways in which 
a grammatical subject may be modified ? Give an example of each class. 



188 SYNTAX. 

4. By an adjective or participle, with its adjuncts ; as, " Wise 
men lay up knowledge ; " — " Retiring from public life, he devoted 
the remainder of his days to study and meditation." 

5. By a verb in the infinitive, with its adjuncts ; as, " His efforts 
to acquire knowledge were not unrewarded." 

6. By an entire clause ; as, " The man who feels himself ignorant, 
should at least be modest." 

Modifications of the Grammatical Predicate. 

§ 239. A grammatical predicate may be modified in the following 
different ways : — 

1. By a noun or pronoun in the same case as the subject, with its 
modifying adjuncts ; as, " She walks a queen." 

2. By the object of the verb, with its adjuncts ; as, " No man for- 
gets his original trade" 

3. By an adverb, with its adjuncts ; as, " He is very seldom 
seen." 

4. By a verb in the infinitive, with its adjuncts ; as, " He desires 
to study French." 

5. By an adjective referring to the subject, with its adjuncts ; as, 
" He was faithful to his employers" 

6. By the object of a preposition, with its adjuncts ; as, " He has 
returned to his friends." 

7. By an entire clause ; as, " I am informed that he is about to 
leave us." 

Rem. — The principal words employed to modify the grammati- 
cal subject and predicate, may themselves be modified by other 
words, and these again by others still. All these different offices 
should be pointed out in the analysis of a sentence. Thus, in the 
sentence, " The discriminating power of conscience is improved by 
reflecting upon the moral character of our actions," upon the moral 
character of our actions, is an adjunct of reflecting ; the, moral, and 
of our actions, are adjuncts of character ; and our modifies actions. 
See § 135, Rem. 2. 

In what ways may a grammatical predicate be modified ? Give an ex- 
ample of each class. How may tJie principal words used to modify the sub- 
ject and predicate be themselves affected. Illustrate. 



ANALYSIS. 189 

OKDEK OF ANALYSIS. 

§ 240. In analyzing a simple sentence, it should first be 
resolved into its logical subject and logical predicate. 

In analyzing the logical subject, the grammatical subject 
should first be pointed out, and then its various modifying 
adjuncts. These adjuncts themselves should also be analyzed, 
and the office of each word particularly explained. The logi- 
cal predicate should be disposed of in a similar manner. 

If the sentence to be analyzed is compound, the pupil 
should first distinguish the different members or clauses, and 
point out the connectives. He may then proceed to analyze 
the different members or simple sentences, in the manner 
already described. 

§ 241. MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 

[The Models here given illustrate very fully the foregoing principles, 
and should receive the special attention of the learner.] 

" To avenge an injury, places us on a level with our 
enemy." 

In this sentence, the logical subject is, to avenge an injury; and plates us 
on a level with our enemy, is the logical predicate. The grammatical sub- 
ject is, to avenge, which here performs the office of both noun and verb. 
An injury is the logical object of to avenge, and injury is the grammatical 
object. Injury is modified by the article an. The grammatical predicate 
is places. The adjuncts of places are us and on a level with our enemy. Us 
is the object of places ; level is the object of on, which relates it to places ; 
and a modifies level. With our enemy is the logical adjunct of level. Ene- 
my is the object of with, which relates it to level ; and our modifies 
enemy. 

" Established custom is not easily broken, till some great 
event shakes the whole system of things." — Johnson. 

This sentence embraces two clauses, which are connected by the con- 
iunction till. Tirst clause : — Established custom is not easily broken. Sec- 
ond clause : — Some great event shakes the whole system of things. 

Analysis of the first clause : — The logical subject is, Established custom ; 
and is not easily broken, is the logical predicate. The grammatical sub- 



190 SYNTAX. 

ject is custom, which is modified by the participial adjective Established. 
The grammatical predicate is> is broken, which is modified by the adverbs 
not and easily. 

Analysis of the second clause: — The logical subject is, some great event ; 
and the logical predicate is, shakes the whole system of things. The gram- 
matical subject is event, which is modified by the adjectives some and great. 
The grammatical predicate is shakes, which is modified by its logical ob- 
ject, the whole system of things. The grammatical object of shakes is sys- 
tem, which is modified by the adjuncts the, whole, and of things. Of 
shows the relation between system and things. 

" The reverence for our own moral nature, on which we 
have now insisted, needs earnest and perpetual inculcation." — 
Channing. 

The principal sentence here embraces a subordinate or modifying 
clause. This subordinate clause is, on which we have now insisted. It is 
connected with the rest of the sentence by the relative pronoun which. 
Which relates to reverence, which is the subject of the principal verb 
needs ; and is governed by the preposition on, which relates it to the verb 
have insisted in the subordinate clause. 

The logical subject of the principal sentence is, The reverence for our 
own moral nature on which we have now insisted ; and the logical predicate is, 
needs earnest and perpetual inculcation. The grammatical subject is rever- 
ence. This is modified by the article the, by the phrase, for our own moral 
nature, and by the clause, on which we have now insisted. Our, own, and 
moral, modify nature; and nature is the object of for, which relates it to 
reverence. The grammatical subject is needs, which is modified by its 
logical object, earnest and perpetual inculcation. The grammatical object 
of needs is inculcation, which is modified by the adjectives earnest and per- 
petual. The conjunction and connects the two adjectives. 

In the subordinate clause, on which we have now insisted, we is both the 
grammatical and the logical subject. The logical predicate embraces 
have now insisted and on which. The grammatical predicate is have insist- 
ed, which is modified by now and on which. On and which have already 
been disposed of. 

§ 342. " Leonidas and his three hundred Spartans fought bravely 
at Thennopylse, against the whole Persian army." — " In ancient 
times, the benefactors of mankind were deemed worthy of immortal 
honors." — Misfortunes make men more thoughtful." — " Numa 
Pompilius, the most fortunate of Roman kings, is said to have lived 
above eighty years." — " Industry and application will make amends 



ANALYSIS. 191 

for the want of a quick and ready wit." — " A new order of culti- 
vated intellect is greatly needed." — " Those who attain any excel- 
lence, commonly spend life in one pursuit." — " Neither genius nor 
practice will always supply a hasty writer with the most proper 
diction." 

" Men of great and stirring powers, who are destined to mould 
the age in which they are born, must first mould themselves upon 
it." — Coleridge. 

" War will never cease, while the field of battle is the field of 
glory, and the most luxuriant laurels grow from a root nourished 
with blood." — Charming. 

" The earth was made so various, that the mind 
Of desultory man, studious of change, 
And pleased with novelty, might be indulged. 
Prospects, however lovely, may be seen 
Till half their beauties fade ; the weary sight, 
Too well acquainted with their smile, slides off 
Fastidious, seeking less familiar scenes." — Cowper. 

CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSES. 
§ 243. When the different members or clauses of a compound 
sentence are so combined that each of them is complete and inde- 
pendent of itself, they are called coordinate clauses. 

Examples : — " It was night, and the moon shone brightly." — " Row- 
ing is a healthful exercise, but it is not free from danger." — " A 
scorner loveth not reproof, neither will he go unto the wise." — 
" Employ the present wisely, for * the future is uncertain." 

§ 244. When one of the members of a compound sentence is 
dependent upon another, the dependent clause is termed subordi- 
nate, and the clause which is independent is termed, the principal 
or leading clause. 

Examples : — " The Britons, with whom Ccesar contended, defended 

their country bravely." — " It cannot be questioned, that knowledge 

confers power." — " Where your treasure is, there will your heart be 

also." — " He will be pardoned, if he repent." 

In the foregoing examples the subordinate clauses are printed in Italics. 

Define coordinate clauses. Examples. Illustrate the distinction between 
principal and subordinate clauses. 

# When two or more clauses are so combined that one of them bears to 
another the relation of cause, inference, or conclusion, they are usually 
classed with coordinate clauses. 



192 SYNTAX. 

GRAMMATICAL CONNECTION OF WORDS. 

[Besides the regular system of Analysis already given, various kindred 
exercises may be occasionally resorted to with great profit. One of the 
most useful and important of this class of exercises, is that of tracing the 
grammatical connection between words situated in different parts of a 
sentence. This practice may be successfully introduced in connection 
with ordinary parsing exercises, before the learner has given any special 
attention to the general subject of Analysis. The following example will 
give some idea of the mode of conducting this exercise.] 

Model. 

§ 245. " There is one Being to whom we can look with a 
perfect conviction of finding that security, which nothing 
about us can give, and which nothing about us can take 
away." — Greenwood. 

Let it be required to trace the connection between the words away and 
is : — Away modifies can take ; can take is connected with can give by and, 
which is governed by can give, and relates to security ; security is the object 
of finding, which is related by of to conviction ; conviction is the object of 
with, which relates it to can look ; to expresses the relation between whom 
and can look, and whom relates to Being, which is the subject of is. 

Let it be required to trace the connection between that and we : — That 
defines security, which is the object of finding ; finding is related by of to 
conviction ; conviction is related by with to can look, which agrees with we. 

" Our cemeteries, rightly selected, and properly arranged, 
may be made subservient to some of the highest purposes of 
religion and human duty." — Story. 

In the foregoing sentence, let the pupil trace the grammatical connection 
from selected to the verb ; — from properly to the verb ; — from highest to 
subservient; — from duty to subservient. 

" He who would advance in any department of knowledge, 
must know what others have done before him." — B. B. 
Edwards. 

Trace the connection, in the foregoing sentence, from the verb would 
advance to the verb must know; — from must know to have done; from 
knowledge to would advance ; — from him to others. 



PUNCTUATION. 193 

PUNCTUATION. 
§ 246. Punctuation treats of the points or marks in- 
serted in written composition, for the purpose of showing 
more clearly the sense intended to be conveyed, and the 
pauses required in reading. 

§ 247. The principal points or marks employed in punc- 
tuation, are the comma ( , ), the semicolon ( ; ), the colon 
( : ), the period ( . ), the note of interrogation ( ? ), the 
note of exclamation ( ! ), and the dash ( — ). 

Rem. 1. — The comma requires a momentary pause ; the semico- 
lon, a pause somewhat longer than the comma ; the colon, a pause 
somewhat longer than the semicolon ; and the period, a full stop. 
The note of interrogation, or the note of exclamation, may take the 
place of any of these, and accordingly requires a pause of the same 
length as the point for which it is substituted. 

Rem. 2. — The duration of these pauses depends on the character of 
the composition ; the grave style requiring much longer intervals than 
the lively or impassioned. 

§ 248. The sense of a passage often requires a pause in reading, 
where usage does not allow the insertion of a point in writing ; as, 
" He woke | to die ; * — " Our schemes of thought in childhood | 
are lost in those of youth." On the other hand, points are some- 
times inserted merely to indicate the syntactical construction, with- 
out requiring the suspension of the voice in reading ; as in the 
phrase, " No, Sir." 

§ 249. — The Comma. 
Rule 1. — When a relative and its antecedent are separated 
from each other by one or more words, a comma should generally 
be inserted before the relative ; as, " Think not man was made in 
vain, who has such an eternity reserved for him." — Spectator, 

Of what does punctuation treat ? What are the marks chiefly employ- 
ed in punctuation 1 What pauses do they severally require ? What de- 
parture from the grammatical punctuation of a sentence is often required in 
reading ? Examples. 

17 



194 SYNTAX. 

" There is a pleasure in poetic pains, 
Which only poets know." — Cowper. 

Rule 2. — When two or more words come between the adjective 
and its noun, a comma is placed after the intervening words ; as, 
" To dispel these errors, and to give a scope to navigation, equal to 
the grandeur of his designs, Prince Henry called in the aid of sci- 
ence." — Irving. 

Rule 3. — When the subject of a sentence consists of several 
nominatives, or of a single nominative followed by an adjunct con- 
sisting of several words, a comma should be inserted before the fol- 
lowing verb. 

Examples : — " The effect of this universal diffusion of gay and splen- 
did light, was to render the preponderating deep green more 
solemn ." — Dwight. 

" The golden sun, 
The planets, all the infinite host of heaven, 
Are shining on the sad abodes of death." 

Rule 4. — When a sentence or clause is used as the nominative 
to a preceding or following verb, it should be separated from the 
verb by a comma ; as, " how dearly it remembered the parent island, 
is told by the English names of its towns." — Bancroft. 

Rule 5. — - Two successive words in the same construction, with- 
out a conjunction expressed, are generally separated by a comma ; 
as, " An aged, venerable man." 

" Has Nature, in her calm, majestic march, 
Faltered with age at last ? " - — Bryant 

Rem. 1. — An apparent exception to this rule often occurs in the case 
of two successive adjectives ; as in the expression, " A venerable old 
man." But the two adjectives, in this example, are not in the same con- 
struction, since old qualifies man, while venerable qualifies the phrase old 
man. 

Rem. 2. — A comma may also be inserted before a conjunction ex- 
pressed, if either of the words connected is followed by an adjunct consist- 
ing of several words ; as, " Intemperance destroys the vigor of our bodies, 
and the strengh of our minds." 

Rule 6. — Three or more distinct, successive words in the same 

[The teacher may repeat an example under each of the rules for the 
use of the several points, and require the pupil to give the rule that 
applies to it Pupils should also be required to select examples from 
other works, illustrating all the rules of punctuation.] 



PUNCTUATION. 195 

construction, with or without a conjunction expressed, should be 
separated by commas ; as, 

" Beside the bed where parting life was laid. 
And sorrow, guilt, and pain, by turns dismayed, 
The reverend champion stood." — Goldsmith. 
" How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, 
How complicate, how wonderful, is man ! " — Young. 
Rem. — The same apparent exception occurs in this rule as in the 
last. In the expression, " A light bluish green tint," bluish modifies green, 
and light modifies the phrase bluish green; while the three words light blu- 
ish green, taken together, qualify tint. 

Rule 7. — Successive pairs of words should be separated from 
each other by commas, as, " The authority of Plato and Aristotle, 
of Zeno and Epicurus, still reigned in the schools." 

Rule 8. — When the different members of a compound sentence 

contain distinct propositions, they are generally separated from each 

other by commas. 

Examples : — " They shrunk from no dangers, and they feared no 
hardships," — Story. "~And thus their physical science became 
magic, their astronomy became astrology, the study of the com- 
position of bodies became alchemy, mathematics became the con- 
templation of the spiritual relations of number and figure, and 
philosophy became theosophy." — WheweU. 

Rule 9. — When the different members of a sentence express a 

mutual comparison, contrast, or opposition, they should generally be 

separated from each other by commas. 

Examples : — " The more I reflected upon it, the more important it 
appeared." — Goldsmith. " The quaker revered principles, not 
men ; truth, not power." — Bancroft. " As the heart panteth after 
the water brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee." — Ps. 42 : 1. 

Rule 10. — To prevent ambiguity in cases of ellipsis, a comma 

is sometimes inserted in the place of the word or phrase omitted. 

Example : — "As a companion, he was severe and satirical ; as a 
friend, captious and dangerous ; in his domestic sphere, harsh, jeal- 
ous, and irascible." 

Rule 11. — When two or more successive clauses end with 

words sustaining a common relation to some word in the following 

clause, a comma should generally be inserted after each. 

Examples : — u The truest mode of enlarging our benevolence, is not 
to quicken our sensibility towards great masses, or wide-spread 
evils, but to approach, comprehend, sympathize with, and act upon, 
sl continually increasing number of individuals." — Channing. 
" Such compulsion is not merely incompatible with, but impossible 
in, a free or elective government." — H. Mann. 



196 SYNTAX. 

Rem. — When, however, the word in the following clause, is not ac- 
companied by several words, the comma before it is often omitted; as, 
* We may, and often do employ these means." 

Rule 12. — When several words intervene between the verb of 
a principal clause and the commencement of a subordinate clause, 
the clauses should be separated from each other by a comma ; as 
" Had we stopped here, it might have done well enough." — "He 
was nineteen years of age, when he bade adieu to his native shores/' 
■ — Prescott. 

Rule 13. — When the connection of a sentence is interrupted 

by one or more words, not closely related in construction to what 

precedes, a comma should generally be inserted both before and 

after the word or words introduced ; as, 

" He, like the world, his ready visit pays 
Where fortune smiles." — Young. 

Rule 14. — The independent case, and the infinitive absolute, 
with their adjuncts, should be separated from the rest of the sen- 
tence by commas. 

Examples : — " To foster industry, to promote union, to cherish re. 
ligious peace, — these were the honest purposes of Lord Baltimore 
during his long supremacy." — Bancroft " The play writers, where 
are they ? and the poets, are their fires extinguished 1 " — H. More. 
" Wept o'er his wounds, or, tales of sorrow done, 
Shouldered his crutch, and showed how fields were won." 

Goldsmith. 
" Rejoice, you men of Angiers, ring your bells !" — Skakspeare. 

Rule 15. — When either of two words in apposition is accom- 
panied by an adjunct, the latter of them, with the words depending 
upon it, should be set off from the rest of the sentence by commas ; 
as, " The following is a dialogue between Socrates, the great Athe- 
nian philosopher, and one Glaucon, a private man." 

Rule 16. — When a word or phrase is repeated for the sake of 
emphasis, a comma should be inserted both before and after it ; as, 
" Here, and here only, lies the democratic character of the revolu- 
tion." — Bancroft. 

" Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers, that lately sprang and 
stood. 
In brighter light, and softer airs, a beauteous sisterhood !" — Bryant. 

Note. — When the word or words to be set off according to the three 
preceding rules, stand at the beginning or end of a sentence, one of the 
commas is of course unnecessary. 



PUNCTUATION. 197 

§ 250.— The Semicolon. 

Rule 1. — When a sentence which is complete in construction, 
is followed by a clause containing a reason, an explanation, an in- 
ference, or a contrast, the latter clause should generally be pre- 
ceded by a semicolon ; as, " The past seems to promise it; but the 
fulfilment depends on the future." — " To the latter it is a double 
advantage ; for it diminishes their pain here, and rewards them 
with heavenly bliss hereafter." — Goldsmith. 

Rule 2. — AVhen several successive clauses have a common con- 
nection with a preceding or following clause, a semicolon is general- 
ly inserted after each. 

Examples : — " Children, as they gamboled on the beach ; reapers, as 
they gathered the harvest; mowers, as they rested upon the 
scythe ; mothers, as they busied themselves about the household ; 
— were victims to an enemy who disappeared the moment a blow 
was struck, and who was ever present where a garrison or a family 
ceased its vigilance." — Bancroft. " Reason as we may, it is im- 
possible not to read, in such a fate, much that we know not how 
to interpret ; much of provocation to cruel deeds and deep resent- 
ment; much of apology for wrong and perfidy; much of doubt 
and misgiving as to the past; much of painful recollections; 
much of dark forebodings." — Story. 

Rule 3. — When several particulars are enumerated in a sen- 
tence, some of which are expressed in several words, they are often 
separated from each other by semicolons; as, li The Aragonese cor- 
tes was composed of four branches or arms ; the ricos horribres, or 
great barons ; the lesser nobles, comprehending the knights ; the 
clergy ; and the commons." — Prescott. 

Rule 4. — Two or more successive short sentences having no 

common dependence, are often separated by semicolons instead of 

periods. 

Example : — " As we have already noticed, its bruised leaves afforded 
a paste from which paper was manufactured ; its juice was formed 
into an intoxicating beverage, pulque, of which the natives to this 
day, are excessively fond ; its leaves supplied an impenetrable 
thatch for the more humble dwellings; thread of which coarse 
stuffs were made, and strong cords, were drawn from its tough 
and twisted fibres ; pins and needles were made of the thorns at 
the extremity of its leaves ; and the root, when properly cooked, 
was converted into a palatable and nutritous food." — Prescott. 

The Colon. 
§ 251. The colon is at present much less used than formerly; 
17* 



198 SYNTAX. 

its place being often supplied by the period, the semicolon, or the 

dash. There are, however, many cases in which no other point 

can with propriety be substituted. The following examples will 

give an idea of the circumstances under which the colon is most 

frequently employed : — 

" The grant was absolute and exclusive : it conceded the land and 
islands ; the rivers and the harbors ; the mines and the fisheries." — Ban- 
croft. 

" There is only one cause for the want of great men in any period : 
nature does not think tit to produce them." — Hallam. 

" Johnson puts the case thus : The Historian tells either what is false 
or what is true. In the former case he is no historian. In the latter, he 
has no opportunity for displaying his abilities." — Macaulay. 

'' The following are the names of the survivors, four of whom were 
seated on the platform from which this address was spoken : — Dr. Jo- 
seph Fiske, Messrs. Daniel Mason, Benjamin Locke, William Munroe," 
etc. — E. Everett. 

" In Num. 14 : 33, it is predicted, that Israel shall wander in the wilder- 
ness forty years." — Biblical Repository. 

" The works of Wm. E. Charming, D.D., with an Introduction. Bos- 
ton : James Munroe and Company." 

The Perioi>. 

§ 252. The period is placed at the end of a complete sentence. 

Rem. — A period is sometimes inserted between two complete senten- 
ces, which are connected by a conjunction ; as, " By degrees the confi- 
dence of the natives was exhausted ; they had welcomed powerful guests, 
who had promised to become their benefactors, and who now robbed their 
humble granaries. But the worst evil in the new settlement was the 
character of the emigrants." — Bancroft. 

The period should be used after all abbreviations ; as, " Mass.," 
" N. Y.," " M. D. ? " " Aug ,* " Esq.," " Mrs.," " Mr." Such expres- 
sions as 1st, 3d, lOtky 4's, 9's, 4fo, 8vo, 12mo, do not require the period 
after them, since they are not strictly abbreviations, the figures 
supplying the place of the first letters of the words. 

The Dash. 
§ 253. The dash is used where a sentence is left unfinished; 
where there is a sudden turn, or an abrupt transition ; and where 
a significant pause is required. 

Examples : — " Let the government do this — the people will do the 
rest." — Macaulay. 

" Ah, that maternal smile ! it answers — Yes." — Cowper. 



PUNCTUATION. 199 

" He suffered, — but his pangs are o'er ; 
Enjoyed, — but his delights are fled ; 
Had friends, — his friends are now no more j 
And foes, — his foes are dead." — Montgomery. 
Rem. — Modern writers often employ dashes in place of the parenthesis. 

The Note of Interrogation. 
§ 254. The note of interrogation is placed at the end of a sen- 
tence in which a question is asked ; as, " What is to be done ? " 

The Note of Exclamation. 
§ 255. The note of exclamation is used after expressions of sud- 
den emotion or passion, and after solemn invocations and addresses ; 
as, 

"Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is dead : 
Run hence, proclaim, cry it about the streets !" — Shakspeare. 

" Hail, holy light ! offspring of heaven firstborn ! " — Milton. 

Rem. — When the interjection Oh is used, the point is generally placed 
immediately after it ; but when is employed, the point is placed after 
one or more intervening words ; as, 

" Oh ! my offence is rank, it smells to heaven ! " — Skakspeare. 
" But thou, O Hope ! .with eyes so fair, — 
What was thy delighted measure ? " — Collins. 

The following characters are also employed in Composition : — 
§ 256. The parenthesis ( ) generally includes a word, phrase, or 
remark, which is merely incidental or explanatory, and which might 
be omitted without injury to the grammatical construction ; as, 

"The tuneful Nine (so sacred legends tell) 

Eirst waked their heavenly lyre these scenes to tell ! " — Campbell. 
" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below." — Pope. 
Rem. — The parenthesis is now employed less frequently than formerly ; 
commas or dashes being used to supply its place ; as, " The colonists — 
such is human nature — desired to burn the town in which they had been 
so wretched." — Bancroft. 

§ 257. Brackets [ ] are used to enclose a word, phrase, or re- 
mark, which is introduced for the purpose of explanation or correc- 
tion ; as, " Putting off the courtier, he [the king] now puts on the 
philosopher." 

Rem. — The parenthesis is often used to supply the place of brackets, 
and brackets are occasionally used to supply the place of the parenthesis. 

The parenthesis. Examples. Brackets. Examples. 



200 SYNTAX. 

§ 258. The apostrophe (') is used to denote the omission of one or 
more letters ; as, o'er, iho\ It is likewise the sign of the possessive 
case, being used instead of a letter which was formerly inserted in 
its place ; as, man's for manes or manis. 

§ 259. Marks of quotation (" ") are used to indicate that the ex- 
act words of another are introduced ; as, " In my first parliament," 
said James, " I was a novice." 

Rem. — When a quotation is introduced within a quotation, it is usually 
distinguished by single inverted commas ; as, " I was not only a ship-boy 
on the ' high and giddy mast,' but also in the cabin where every menial 
office fell to my lot." If both quotations commence or terminate togeth- 
er, this commencement or termination is indicated by the use of three 
commas ; as, " In the course of this polite attention, he pointed in a cer- 
tain direction and exclaimed, ' That is Mr. Sherman of Connecticut ; a 
man who never said a foolish thing in his life.' " 

When a point is inserted immediately after a quotation, it should be 
placed within the quotation marks. 

§ 260. A small dash (") is sometimes placed over a vowel to de- 
note that it is long ; as, noble. A breve ("), placed over a vowel, 
shows that it is short ; as, respite. 

§ 261. A mark of accent ( f ) is sometimes placed over a syllable to de- 
note that it requires particular stress in pronunciation ; as, dding. 

§ 262. A diaeresis (") is sometimes placed over the latter of two 
successive vowels to show that they do not form a diphthong ; as, co- 
operate. 

§ 263. The cedilla (, ) is a mark which is sometimes placed under 
the letter c to show that it has the sound of s ; as in " facade." 

§ 264. The asterisk (*), the obelisk (f), the double dagger (J), 
and parallels (||), as well as letters and figures, are employed in re- 
ferring to notes in the margin, or at the bottom of the page. 

§ 265. The ellipsis (* * *) or ( ) is used to denote the omis- 
sion of some letters or words ; as, " H * * * y M * * * * * 1," 
u q s K g." See also an example in the note on p. 151. 

« ^» n mi. * (is used to connect words which have a com- 

S 266. The brace 4 , ,. ,• 

* { mon application. 

The apostrophe. Examples. Marks of quotation. Examples. How are 
long vowels distinguished ? — short vowels ? The diaeresis. The asterisk, 
obelisk, etc. Marks of ellipsis. Examples. The brace. Examples. 



PUNCTUATION. 201 

§ 267. The caret (a) is employed in writing, to show that some 
word or letter has been omitted ; as, ." Washington uniformly treat- 

and 
ed Mr. Sherman with great respect a attention. M 

§ 268. The hyphen (-) is used after a part of a word at the end 
of a line, to show that the remainder is at the beginning of the 
next line ; and to connect the simple parts of a compound word, 
as, all-absorbing. 

Note. — In dividing a word at the end of a line, the break should 
always be made between two syllables, and not between different 
letters of the same syllable. See § 71. 

§ 269. The index (^°) refers to some remarkable passage. 

§ 270. The section (§) is used to distinguish the parts into which 
a work or a portion of a work is divided. 

§ 271. The paragraph (%) is used in the Old and New Testa- 
ments to denote the beginning of a new subject. In other books 
paragraphs are distinguished by commencing a new line farther 
from the margin than the beginning of the other lines. This is 
called indenting. 

[For exercises in punctuation, the teacher may write on a blackboard 
some portion of a well pointed book or other piece of writing, omitting 
all the points : and then require the pupil to transcribe and punctuate it. 
When this is done, the several copies may be compared and corrected. 
The teacher may also read one or more paragraphs aloud, and require 
the pupils to write and punctuate what is read, without seeing the printed 
copy. Exercises of this description should be repeated till the pupils be- 
come familiar with all the common principles of punctuation. Pupils 
should also be required to devote careful attention to this subject, in con- 
nection with their ordinary exercises in composition.] 

The caret. Examples. The hyphen. Examples. Division of a word at 
the end of a line. The index. Examples. The section. Examples. The 
paragraph. Examples. 



PART IV. 



PROSODY. 

§ 272. Prosody treats of accent, quantity, and the 
laws of versification * 

§ 273. Accent is the stress which is laid on one or more syllables 

of a word, in pronunciation ; as, reverberate, undertake. 

The term accent is also applied, in poetry, to the stress laid on mono- 
syllabic words ; as, 

" Content is wealth, the riches of the mind." — Dryden. 

§ 274. The quantity of a syllable is the relative time occupied in 
its pronunciation. A syllable may be long in quantity, as fate ; or 
short, as let. The Greeks and Romans based their poetry on the 
quantity of syllables ; but modern versification depends chiefly uj>on 
accent, the quantity of syllables being almost wholly disregarded. 

§ 275. A pause is a brief suspension of the voice in reading or 



There are two pauses which are peculiar to poetry ; — the ccesural 
and the final. The caesura is a pause which is introduced into a 
line to render the versification more melodious ; as, 

" Not half so swift | the trembling doves can fly." 

" Thrones and imperial powers, j offspring of heaven." 

Rem. 1. — The caesural pause generally occurs after the fourth, fifth, or 
sixth syllable; but it occasionally takes place after the third or the 
seventh. 

Rem. 2. — When the caesura occurs after the fourth syllable, the verse is 
lively and spirited ; as, 

" Her lively looks | a sprightly mind disclose, 
Quick as her eyes | and as unfixed as those." 

Of what does prosody treat ? What is accent ? Examples. What is 
said of quantity ? What is a pause? What pauses are peculiar to poetry ? 
Give an account of each. Examples. 

* Emphasis, Tone, Pitch,and Inflection, which are often treated of under 
the head of Prosody, belong more properly to Elocution. 



VERSIFICATION. 203 

Rem. 3. — When the caesura occurs after the fifth syllable, the verse 
loses its brisk and lively air, and becomes more smooth, gentle, and flow- 
ing; as, 

" Eternal sunshine | of the spotless mind, 
Each prayer accepted | and each wish resigned." 
Rem. 4. — When the caesura occurs after the sixth syllable, the verse 
becomes more solemn and its measure more stately.; as, 
" The wrath of Peleus' son, | the direful spring 
Of all the Grecian woes, | Goddess, sing." 

The final pause is that which occurs at the end of a line. 
In reading poetry, careful attention should be given to the final 
and csesural pauses. 



VERSIFICATION. 

§ 276. Versification is a measured arrangement of words in which 

the accent is made to recur at certain regular intervals. 

Rem. — This definition applies only to modern verse. In Greek and 
Latin poetry, it is the regular recurrence of long syllables, according to 
settled laws, which constitutes verse. 

§ 277. — There are two kinds of verse ; — rhyme and blank verse. 
Rhyme is the correspondence of sounds in the last words or sylla- 
bles of verses ; * as, 

* Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride, 
And even his failings leaned to virtue's side." — Goldsmith. 
Rem. 1. — For two syllables to form a full and perfect rhyme, it is ne- 
cessary that the vowel be the same in both ; that the parts following the 
vowel be the same : that the parts preceding the vowel be different ; and 
that the syllables be accented.! 

Blank verse is verse without rhyme ; as, 

" So live, that when thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan that moves 
To that mysterious realm, where each shall take 
His chamber in the silent halls of death, 
Thou go not, like the quarry-slave, at night, 
Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed 
By an unfaltering trust, approach the grave, 
Like one that draws the drapery of his couch 
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams." — Bryant. 

What care should be observed in reading poetry ? What is versification ? 
What different kinds of verse are there ? Define rhyme. Examples. Define 
blank verse. Examples. 

* The lines of poetry are properly called verses. t Latham. 



204 PROSODY. 

Eem. 2. — Blank verse possesses, in many respects, important advan- 
tages over rhyme. It allows the lines to run into one another with per- 
fect freedom, and is hence adapted to subjects of dignity and force, which 
demand more free and manly numbers than can be commanded in rhyme. 
Rhyme, on the other hand, is undoubtedly the most important ornament 
of English versification. 

Eem. 3. — Blank verse is always written in lines of ten syllables. 
Rhymed verses may consist of any number of syllables. 

§ 278. A. foot is a rhythmical division of a verse ; as, 

K Our thoughts [ as bound | less, and | our souls | as free." 
§ 279. A couplet, or distich, consists of two verses making com- 
plete sense; as, 

** Indulge the true ambition to excel 
In that best art, ■ — the art of living well." 

§ 280. A triplet consists of three verses which rhyme together ; as, 

" Of many things, some few I shall explain, 
Teach thee to shun the dangers of the main, 
And how at length the promised land to gain." — Dryden. 

§ 281. Alliteration is the frequent recurrence of the same let- 
ter ; as, 

{i The Zord/y /ion /eaves his Zone/y Zair." 
K Weave the warp and weave the woof." 

§ 282. A stanza is a combination of several lines, or verses, con- 
stituting a regular division of a poem. 

Rem. — In popular language, stanzas are frequently called verses. 

§ 283. Scanning is the resolving of verses into the several feet of 
which they are composed. 

§ 284. The principal feet used in English poetry are, — 

1. The Iambus, which consists of two syllables; the first unac- 
cented, and the second accented ; as, con-tend, 

2. The Trochee, which consists of two syllables ; the first accented, 
and the second unaccented ; as, no-ble. 

3. The Anapest, which consists of three syllables ; the first two 
unaccented, and the last accented ; as, in-ter-cede. 

§ 285. The following feet are employed less frequently: — fl.) The 
spondee, which consists of two accented syllables; (2,) the pyrrhic, which 
consists of two unaccented syllables; (3.) the dactyle, consisting of three 

What is afoot ? Examples. What is a couplet f Examples. What is 
a triplet ? Examples. What is alliteration f Examples. Define a stanza. 
What is scanning 1 What kind of feet are principally used in English 
poetry f Examples of each. 



IAMBIC VERSE. 



205 



syllables, of which the first only is accented ; (4.) the amphibrach, consist- 
ing of three syllables, of which the second only is accented; (5.) the tri- 
brach, consisting of three unaccented syllables. 

Iambic Verse. 
§ 286. Iambic verse is composed of iambic feet, and has the 
accent on the even syllables. The most common forms are the fol- 
lowing : — 

1. Four iambuses, or eight syllables in a line ; as, 

" And may | at last | my wea | ry age 
Find out | the peace fful her | milage." 
Rem. 1. — This measure is sometimes varied, to adapt it to light sub- 
jects, by taking an additional unaccented syllable ; as, 
" Or if | It be | thy will | and plCas | wre, 
Direct | my plough | to find | a treas | wre." 
Rem. 2. — In some cases, a syllable is cut off from the first foot ; as, 
"Praise | to God, | immor | tal praise, 
For | the love | that crowns | our days." 

2. Five iambuses, or ten syllables in a line ; as, 

" For me | your trfb | uta | ry stores | combine." 
Rem. 1. — This is usually called the heroic measure, and is the most ele- 
vated and dignified kind of English verse. It frequently admits of some 
variety, particularly at the beginning or end of a line. A trochee is 
sometimes employed instead of an iambus, and an unaccented syllable is 
occasionally attached to the last foot ; as, 

" His house she enters ; there to be a light 
Shining within, when all without is night ; — 
A guar | dian-an | gel, o'er | his life | presid | inq, 
Doubling | his pleas | ures, and | his cares divid \ ing" — Rogers. 
Rem. 2. — A verse of six feet, or twelve syllables, called an Alexandrine, 
is occasionally introduced into heroic poetry, especially at the close of a 
passage ; as, 

" Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow : — 
Such as | Crea | tion's dawn | beheld, | thou roll | est now." 
Rem. 3. — Heroic verse may be written either with or without rhyme. 
Milton's Paradise Lost, Thomson's Seasons, Cowper's Task, and Pope's 
Translation of Homer, are examples of heroic verse. 

Rem. 4. — The four lined stanzas of Psalmody often consist of alternate 
verses of four and three feet ; as, 

" Thou didst, | O might | y God ! | exist 

Ere time | began | its race ; 
Before | the am | pie el | ements 
Fill'd up | the void | of space." 

What is iambic verse f What are the principal forms of iambic verse ? 
Examples of each. 

18 



206 



PROSODY. 



Rem. 5. — A single syllable is sometimes added at the end of a line, 
for the sake of variety ; as, 

" Waft, waft, | ye winds, | his sto | ry ; 
And you, ye waters roll, 
Till like | a sea | of glo | ry, 
It spreads from pole to pole." 

§ 287. The following forms of iambic verse are also occasionally 
employed : — 

(1.) One iambus, with an additional syllable ; as, 
" Consent | ing, 
Repent | ing" 
(2.) Two iambuses, with or without an additional syllable ; as, 
" What place | is here ! 

What scenes | appear ! " 
" Upon | a moun | tain, 
Beside | a foun | torn." 
(3.) Three iambuses, with or without an additional syllable j as, 
" A charge | to keep | I have, 
A God | to glo | rify." 
" Our hearts | no long | er Ian | guish." 



Trochaic Verse. 
§ 288. Trochaic verse is composed of trochaic feet, and has the 
accent on the odd syllables. The principal forms of Trochaic verse 
are the following : — 

1. Three trochees in a line; or three trochees and an additional 
syllable; as, 

"Wdis | me, Al | hama." 
" Haste thee, | Nymph, and | bring with | thee 
Jest, and | youthful | Jolli | ty." — Milton. 

2. Four trochees ; as, 

" Round us | roars the | tempest | louder." 

3. Six trochees ; as, 

" On a | mountain | stretch'd be | neath a | hoary | willow." 
The following forms are sometimes employed : — 
(1.) One trochee, with an additional syllable ; as, 
" Tumult | cease, 
Sink to | peace." 

What are the principal forms of trochaic verse ? Examples of each. 



s 



ANAPESTIC VERSE. 207 

(2.) Two trochees ; or two trochees, with an additional syllable ; as, 
u Wishes | rising, 
Thoughts sur | prising." 

" Give the | vengeance [ due 
To the | valiant | crew." 

IS.) Five trochees ; as. 

" Virtue's | bright'ning | ray shall | beam for | ever." 

Anapestic Verse. 
§ 289. Anapestic verse has the accent on every third syllable. 
The following are the principal forms : — 

1. Two anapestic feet ; or two anapests and an unaccented syll- 
able; as, 

■ They renew | all my joys." 
"For no arts | could avail | him " 

2. Three anapestic feet ; as, * 

"lam out | of human | itv's reach, 
I must fin | ish my jour | ney alone." — Cowper. 

3. Four anapestic feet ; or four anapests and an additional sylla- 
ble; as, 

" For a field | of the dead | rushes red | on my sight *, 

And the clans | of Cullo | den are scat | ter'd in fight."— Campbell. 
■ On the cold | cheek of death, | smiles and ro | ses are 
blend | ing." — Beattie. 
Rem. — Iambic, trochaic, and anapestic feet, admit of occasional inter- 
mixture. 

Trochaic and Iambic* 
- Tyrant \ and slave, | those names | of hate | and fear." 
Iambic and Anapestic. 
" My sdr | rows I th£n | might assuage." 



POETIC LICENSE. 

§ 290. Custom has given sanction to certain modes of expression 
in poetry, which are not conformable to the ordinary rules of gram- 
mar. The following are the most important of these peculiar- 
ities : — 

What are the principal forms of anapestic verse ? Examples of each. 
What peculiarities of expression are allowed in poetry. Examples of each 
class. 



208 PROSODY. 

1. Poetry admits of many antiquated expressions and irregular 
forms of construction ; as, 

" Let each, as likes him best, his hours employ." 

" Long were to tell what I have seen." 

" He knew to sing and build the lofty rhyme." 

2. Many words sometimes undergo changes in spelling, that the 
number of syllables may be made greater or less ; as, 'gan, for be- 
gan ; e'er, for ever. 

3. The arrangement of words frequently departs from the ordi- 
nary requirements of syntactical rules ; as, 

" In saffron robe with taper clear" — Milton. 
" No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets." — Gray. 
" A transient calm the happy scenes bestow." — Ibid. 
" When first thy sire to send on earth 

Virtue, his darling child, designed" — Ibid. 
" Heaven trembles, roar the mountains, thunders all the 

ground." 
11 Thee, chantress, oft the woods among, 

I woo, to hear thy even song." — Milton. 

4. Adjectives are often used for nouns or adverbs ; as, 

" Gradual sinks the breeze into a perfect calm." 

5. The conjunction nor is often used for neither, and or for 

either; as, 

" To them nor stores nor granaries belong." 
" He riches gave, he intellectual strength, 
. To few, and therefore none commands to be 
Or rich, or learned." — Pollok. 

6. Intransitive verbs are often used transitively ; as, 

11 He mourned no recreant friend." 
u Yet not for thy advice or threats, I fly 
These wicked tents devoted." — Milton. 

7. Poetry admits of a great variety of elliptical expressions ; as, 

" The brink of [a] haunted stream." 
" Por is there aught in sleep [which] can charm the wise 1 " 

" To whom thus Adam " [spake.] 
[He] " Who does the best his circumstance allows, 

Does well, acts nobly, — angels could [do] no more." — Young. 



APPENDIX. 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

§ 291. A figure of speech is a departure from the ordinary 
form of words, from their regular construction, or from their literal 
signification. 

Departures from the usual form of words are called figures of 
Etymology. 

Departures from the regular construction of words are called fig- 
ures of Syntax. 

Departures from the literal signification of words are called fig- 
ures of Rhetoric. 



Figures of Etymology. 
§ 292. The figures of Etymology are Aphceresis, Syncope, Ap6- 
cope, Prosthesis, Paragdge, Synceresis, Diaeresis, and Tmesis. 

1. Aphceresis is the taking of a letter or syllable from the begin- 
ning of a word ; as, 9 neath, for beneath; 'gainst for against. 

" But his courage 'gan fail, 
For no arts could avail. " 

2. Syncope is the elision of one or more letters from the middle 
of a word ; as, lingering, for lingering ; lov'd for loved. 

3. Apocope is the elision of one or more letters from the end of a 
word ; as, thro 9 for through ; th 9 for the. 

4. Prosthesis is the addition of one or more letters to the begin- 
ning of a word ; as, beloved, for loved ; enchain for chain. 

Define a figure of speech. Wat are figures of Etymology ? — of Syntax ? — ■ 
of Rhetoric 1 Define Aphceresis. Examples. Syncope. Examples. Apocope. 
Examples. Prosthesis. Examples. 

18* 



210 APPENDIX. 

5. Paragoge is the addition of one or more letters to the end of a 
word ; as, awaken, for awake ; bounden, for bound. 

6. Synceresis is the contraction of two syllables into one ; as, 
ilienate, for alienate ; learned, for learn-ed. 

7. Diceresis is the separation of two vowels standing together, so 
as to connect them with diiferent syllables ; as, cooperate, aerial. 

8. Tmesis is the separation of a compound word into two parts, by 
introducing another word between them ; as, " Thy thoughts 
which are to us ivard," for " Thy thoughts which are toward us ; " 
— " How high soever" for " Howsoever high." 

Figures of Syntax. 

§ 293. The principal figures of Syntax, are Ellipsis, Pleonasm, 
Endllage, and Hyperbaton. 

1. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words which are neces- 
sary to complete the grammatical construction. The following ex- 
amples will serve to illustrate this figure : — 

(1) Nouns ; as, " St Paul's " [church] ; " The twelve " [apostles]. 

(2) Adjectives ; as, " Every day and [every] hour ;" " A gentle- 
man and [a] lady." 

(3) Pronouns ; as, " I am monarch of all [which] I survey ; " — 
" He left in the morning, and [he] returned the same day." 

(4) Verbs ; as, " to whom the angel " [spoke] ; — [Let] " No 
man eat fruit of thee." 

(5) Adverbs ; as, " He spoke [wisely] and acted wisely." 

(6) Prepositions ; as, " He was banished [from] England ; " — 
11 He lived like [to] a prince." 

(7) Conjunctions ; as, " I came, [and] I saw, [and] I conquered/' 

(8) Phrases and entire clauses ; as, " The day has been consid- 
ered as an image of the year, and a year [has been considered] as 
the representation of life." — Johnson. 

Paragoge. Examples. Synceresis. Examples. Diaeresis. Examples. 
Tmesis. Examples. What are the principal figures of Syntax? Define 
Ellipsis. Examples of the omission of nouns ; — adjectives ; — pronouns ; — 
verbs ; — adverbs ; — prepositions ; — conjunctions. Give examples of the omis- 
sion of phrases and clauses. 



FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 211 

2. Pleonasm is the use of more words to express ideas, than are 
necessary ; as, " What we have seen with our eyes, and heard with 
our ears" 

Rem. — The repetition of a conjunction is termed Polysyndeton ; as , 
" We have ships and men and money and stores." 

3. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another ; as, 

" Slow rises worth by poverty depressed." 

4. Hyperbaton in the transposition of words ; as, " All price be* 
yond," for " Beyond all price." 

Figures of Rhetoric. 
§ 294. The principal figures of Rhetoric are Simile, Metaphor, 
Allegory, Antithesis, Hyperbole, Irony, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Per- 
sonification, Apostrophe, Interrogation, Exclamation, Vision, and 
Climax. 

1. A Simile is a direct and formal comparison ; as, " He shall be 
like a tree planted by the rivers of water." 

■ As, down in the sunless retreats of the ocean, 
Sweet flowrets are springing, no mortal can see ; 

>Sb, deep in my bosom, the prayer of devotion, 

Unheard by the world, rises silent to thee." — Moore. 

2. A Metaphor is an implied comparison ; as, " What are the sor- 
rows of the young ? Their growing minds soon close above the 
wound." 

3. An Allegory is a continued metaphor. In the following beauti- 
ful example found in the 80th Psalm, the people of Israel are rep- 
resented under the symbol of a vine : — 

" Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast out the 
heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst 
cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered 
with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. 
She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto the river. 
Why hast thou then broken down her hedges, so that all they which 
pass by the way do pluck her 1 The boar out of the wood doth waste it, 
and the wild beast of the field doth devour it." 

4. An Antithesis is an expression denoting opposition or contrast J 
as, " The wicked flee when no man pursueth, but the righteous are 
bold as a lion." 

" Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull." 

Define Pleonasm. Examples. Enallage. Examples. Hyperbaton. Ex- 
amples. Simile. Examples. Metaphor. Examples. Allegory. Examples. 
Antithesis. Examples, 



212 APPENDIX. 

5. An Hyperbole is an exaggeration in the use of language, rep- 
resenting objects as greater or less, better or worse, than they really 
are. Thus, David, speaking of Saul and Jonathan, says, " They 
are swifter than eagles ; they were stronger than lions." 

6. Irony is a mode of speech expressing a sense contrary to that 
which the speaker or writer intends to convey. The prophet Elijah 
employed this figure when he said to the priests of Baal : " Cry 
aloud, for he is a god ; either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is 
in a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked." 

7. Metonymy is a figure by which one thing is put for another ; 
as, " I have been reading Milton ; that is, his poems or works.-* 
" Gray hairs [old age~\ should be respected." 

8. Synecdoche is a figure by which the whole is put for a part, or 
a part for the whole ; as, " Man returneth to dust ; " that is, his 
tody. — " This roof [house'] shall be his protection." 

9. Personification or Prosopopeia, is a figure by which we attrib- 
ute life and action to inanimate objects ; or ascribe to irrational an- 
imals and objects without life, the actions and qualities of rational 
beings ; as, " The ground thirsts for rain." 

" See, Winter comes, to rule the varied year, 
Sullen and sad, with all his rising train." — Thomson. 

10. Apostrophe is a figure by which a speaker or writer turns 
from the party to which his discourse is mainly directed, and ad- 
dresses himself to some person or thing present, or absent ; as, 
" Death is swallowed up in victory. Death ! where is thy sting ? 
grave ! where is thy victory f" — 1 Cor. 15 : 54, 55. 

Rem. — In modern usage, the term Apostrophe is applied to any address 
made to an inanimate object, an irrational animal, or an absent person ; as, 
" Hail, holy light, offspring of Heaven, first-born ! " — Milton. 
" Sail on, thou lone, imperial bird, 

Of quenchless eye and tireless wing." — Mellen. 
" Alas ! my noble boy ! that thou shouldst die ! 
Thou, who wert made so beautifully fair ! 
That death should settle in thy glorious eye, 
And leave his stillness in this clustering hair ! 
How could he mark thee for the silent tomb ! 
My proud boy, Absalom." — Willis. 

Hyperbole. Examples. Irony. Examples. Metonymy. Examples. Synec- 
doche. Examples. Personification. Examples. Apostrophe. Examples. 



FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 213 

11. Interrogation is a figure by which a question is asked for the 
purpose of expressing an assertion more strongly ; as, " Do we mean 
to submit to the measures of Parliament, Boston Port Bill and all ? 
Do we mean to submit, and consent that we ourselves shall be ground 
to powder, and our country and its rights trodden down in the 
dust ? I know we do not mean to submit We never shall sub- 
mit." — Webster. 

12. Exclamation is a figure employed to express some strong emo- 
tion ; as, 

" wretched state ! bosom, black as death ! " — Shakspeare. 
" Ah ! how unjust to nature and himself, 
Is thoughtless, thankless, inconsistent man ! " — Young. 

13. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which past or future events 

are represented as passing before our eyes. The following is a 

beautiful example of this figure : — 

" Methinks I see it now, that one solitary, adventurous vessel, the May- 
flower of a forlorn hope, freighted with the prospects of a future state, and 
bound across the unknown sea. I behold it pursuing, with a thousand 
misgivings, the uncertain, the tedious voyage. Suns rise and set, and 
weeks and months pass, and the winter surprises them on the deep, but 
brings them not the sight of the wished-for shore. I see them now scantily 
supplied with provisions, crowded almost to suffocation in their ill-stored 
prison, delayed by calms, pursuing a circuitous route ; — and now driven 
in fury before the raging tempest, on the high and giddy waves. The 
awful voice of the storm howls through the rigging. The laboring masts 
seem straining from their base; — the dismal sound of the pumps is 
heard ; — the ship leaps, as it were, madly from billow to billow ; — the 
ocean breaks, and settles with engulfing floods over the floating deck, 
and beats with deadening weight against the staggered vessel. 1 ' — E. 
Everett. 

14. Climax is a figure in which the ideas rise in regular grada- 
tion ; as, ." What a piece of work is man ! how noble in reason ; 
how infinite in faculties ! in form and moving, how express and ad- 
mirable ! in action, how like an angel ! in apprehension, how like a 
god 1 " — Shakspeare. 

Define Interrogation. Examples. Exclamation. Examples. Vision, 
Examples. Climax. Examples. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



A. or Ans. answer. 

A. A. S. Academics Americana so- 

cius, fellow of the American 

Academy. 
A. B. or B. A. artium baccalaureus, 

bachelor of arts. 
Abp. archbishop. 
Acct. account. 

A. C. ante Christum, before Christ. 
A. D. anno Domini, in the year of 

our Lord. 
Adj. adjective. 
Admr. administrator. 
Adv. adverb. 
Ala. Alabama. 
A. M. ante meridiem, before noon j 

or, anno mundi, in the year of 

the world; or, artium magister, 

master of arts. 
Anon, anonymous. 
Apr. April. 
Ark. Arkansas. 

A. U. C. anno urbis conditai, in the 
year of the city [Rome]. 

Aug. August. 
Bart, baronet. 
Bbl. barrel. 

B. C. before Christ. 

B. D. bachelor of divinity. 
Benj. Benjamin. 

Bp. bishop. 

C. or cent, a hundred. 
Capt. captain. 
Chap, chapter. 
Chas. Charles. 
Chron. Chronicles. 
Co. company ; county. 



Col. colonel. 

Coll. college. 

Cor. Corinthians. 

Cr. credit, or creditor. 

Ct. or Conn. Connecticut. 

Cts. cents. 

Cwt. hundred weight. 

D. (d.) denarius, a penny, or pence. 

D. C. District of Columbia. 

D. D. doctor of divinity. 
Dea. deacon. 

Dec. December. 

Deg. degree, or degrees. 

Del. Delaware. 

Dep. deputy. 

Deut. Deuteronomy. 

Do. or ditto, the same. 

Doct. doctor. 

Dolls, or $, dollars. 

Doz. dozen. 

Dr. debtor ; doctor. 

Dwt. pennyweight. 

E. east. 

Eccl. Ecclesiastes. 

Ed. editor ; edition. 

E. g. exempli gratia, for example. 

Eng. English, or England. 

Eph. Ephesians. 

Esq. esquire. 

Etc. et cetera, and others, and so on* 

Ex. Exodus ; example. 

Exr. executor. 

Feb. Februray. 
Fig. figure. 
Fla. Florida. 
Fol. folio. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



215 



• Fr. French. 
F. R. S. fellow of the Royal So- 
ciety. 
Ga. Georgia. 
Gal. Galatians. 
Gall, gallon. 
Gen. Genesis ; general. 
Gent, gentlemen. 
Geo. George. 
Gov. governor. 
Gr. grain. 
H. or hr. hour. 
H. B. M. His or Her Britannic 

Majesty. 
Heb. Hebrews. 
Hhd. hogshead. 
H. M. His or Her Majesty. 
Hon. honorable. 
Hund. hundred. 
la. or Ind. Indiana. 
lb. or ibid, ibidem, in the same 

place. 
Id. idem, the same. 
I. e. id est, that is. 
111. Illinois. 
Inst, instant, i. e. present, or of this 

month. 
Incog, incognito, unknown. 
Isa. Isaiah. 

Jan. January. 
Jas. or Ja. James. 
Jno. John. 
Jona. Jonathan. 
Jos. Joseph. 
Josh. Joshua. 
Jun. or Jr. junior. 
Kt. knight. 
Ky. Kentucky. 
La. Louisiana. 
Lam. Lamentations. 
Lat. latitude. 



L. C. Lower Canada. 

Lev. Leviticus. 

Lieut, lieutenant. 

LL. D. legum doctor, doctor of laws. 

Lon. longitude. 

Lond. London. 

L. S. locus sigilli, the place of tho 
seal. 

M. milk, a thousand. 

M. A. master of arts. 

Maj. Major. 

Mar. March. 

Mass. Massachusetts. 

Matt. Matthew. 

M. C. member of Congress. 

Md. Maryland. 

M. D. medicines, doctor, doctor of 
medicine. 

Me. Maine. 

Messrs. Messieurs. 

Mi. or Miss. Mississippi. 

Mich. Michigan. 

Mo. Missouri. 

M. P. member of Parliament. 

Mr. Mister. 

Mrs. Mistress. 

MS. manuscript. 

MSS. manuscripts. 

N. North. 

N. A. North America. 

N. B. nota bene, take particular 

notice. 
N. B. New Brunswick. 
N. C. North Carolina. 
N. E. New England j north-east. 
Nem. con. nemine contradicente, no 

one opposing. 
N. H. New Hampshire. 
N. J. New Jersey. 
No. number. 
N. O. New Orleans. 
Nov. November. 



216 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



N. S. Nova Scotia ; new style. 

N. T. New Testament. 

Num. Numbers. 

N. W. north-west. 

N. Y. New York. 

0. Ohio. 

Obt. obedient. 

Oct. October. 

0. S. old style. 

Oxon. Oxonia, Oxford. 

Oz. ounce, or ounces. 

P. page. 

Pa. or Penn. Pennsylvania. 
Per cent, per centum, by the hun- 
dred. 
Pet. Peter. 

Ph. D. doctor of philosophy. 
PI. plural. 
P. M. post-master. 
P. M. post meridiem, afternoon. 
P. 0. post-office. 
Pp. pages. 
Pres. president. 
Prob. problem. 
Prof, professor. 
Prop, proposition. 
Ps. Psalms. 
P. S. post scriptum, postscript. 

Q. or qu. question. 
Q. E. D. quod erat demonstrandum, 
which was to be demonstrated. 
Qr. quarter. 
Qt. quart. 

Q. v. quod vide, which see. 
Kev. reverend ; Revelation. 
R. I. Rhode Island. 
R. N. Royal Navy. 
Robt. Robert. 
Rom. Romans. 
Rt. Hon. right honorable. 
S. south ; shilling, or shillings. 



S. A. South America. 
S. C. South Carolina. 
Sec. secretary. 
S. E. south east. 
Sen. senior. 
Sept. September. 
Sq. square. 

ss. scilicet, to wit, namely. 
St. saint ; street. 

S. T. D. sanctce theologice doctor, doc- 
tor of theology. 
S. W. south-west. 
Tenn. Tennessee. 
Thess. Thessalonians. 
Thos. Thomas. 
Tim. Timothy. 
Tit. Titus. 
Tr. translator ; treasurer. 

U. C. Upper Canada. 

IJlt. ultimo (last), the last month. 

U. S. United States. 

V. or vid. vide, see. 

Va. Virginia. 

Viz. videlicet, to wit, namely. 

Vol. volume. 

Vols, volumes. 

Vs. versus, against. 

Vt. Vermont. 

W. West. 

W. I. West Indies. 

Wk. week. 

Wm. William. 

Wt. weight. 

Yd. yard. 

Yds. yards. 

&. and. 

&c. et cetera, and others, and so forth. 

4to. quarto. 

8vo. octavo. 

12mo. duodecimo. 

1 8mo. octodecimo. 



ItfDEX. 



A, peculiar uses of this letter, 149. 

Abbreviations, 214. 

Abstract nouns, 53. 

Accent, 200, 202. 

Adjectives, 14, 22., 67, 144. 

Adverbs, 19, 117 ; 168. 

Adverbial phrases, 1 70. 

Adjuncts, 126, 186. 

Agreement, 126, 153. 

All, 145, 169. 

Allegory, 211. 

Alliteration, 204. 

Alphabet, 26, 42. 

Amen, 169. 

Analysis, 184. 

Anapestic verse, 204, 207. 

Antithesis, 211. 

Aphseresis, 209. 

Apocope, 209. 

Apostrophe, 200, 212. 

Apposition, 133, 174. 

Articles, 14, 69, 148. 

As, 174,176. 

Asterisk, obelisk, etc., 200. 

Auxiliary verbs, 92. 

Blank verse, 203. 
Both, 175. 
Brace, 201. 

19 



Brackets, 199. 
But, 178. 

Capital letters, 27. 

Caret, 201. 

Case, 63. 

Catalogue of grammars, 5. 

Cedilla, 200. 

Clauses, classification of, 191. 

Climax, 213. 

Close vowels, 32. 

Cognate sounds, 33. 

Collective nouns, 54, 154. 

Colon, 197. 

Comma, 193. 

Common and proper nouns, 53. 

Comparison of Adjectives, 70. 

Comparison of adverbs, 117. 

Composition,exercises in, passim. 

Compound conjunctions, 172. 

Compound prepositions, 177. 

Compound words, 47. 

Conjugation of verbs, 92, 110. 

Conjunctions, 20, 23, 119, 171. 

Conjunctive adverbs, 117, 171. 

Connection, 79, 117, 171 — 6, 192. 

Consonants, 31, 38, 44. 

Corresponding conjunctions,! 72. 

Couplet, 204. 



£■ 



218 



INDEX. 



Dash, 198. 

Declension of nouns, OS. 

Declension of pronouns, 75 - 7, 

80. 
Defective verbs, 116. 
Definitive adjectives, 68. 
Derivation, 121. 
Derivative words, 47. 
Descriptive adjectives, 68. 
Dia3resis, 200, 210. 
Diphthongs, 32, 37. 
Do, 109. 
Drink, 112. 
Each other, 134. 
Either, 145. 
Ellipsis, 200, 210. 
Enallage, 211. 

English Grammar, division of, 25. 
Enough, 171. 
Etymology, 51. 
Exclamation, 199, 213. 
Exercises, passim. 
Feet, poetic, 204. 
Figures of speech, 209. 
First three, three first, etc., 151. 
From thence, from whence, etc., 

169. 
Gender, 54. 

General rule of syntax, 180. 
Government, 126, 158, 178. 

Hither, thither, etc., 169. 

Hyperbaton, 211. 

Hyperbole, 212. 

Hyphen, 201. 

Hypothetical form of verbs, 101. 

Iambic verse, 204, 205. 
Idiom, 126, 



Imperative absolute, 1 54 - 5. 
Imperatives in the first and third 

persons, 102. 
Independent case, 136. 
Index, 201. 

Infinitives, government of, 162. 
Interjections, 21, 120, 179. 
Interrogation, 199, 213. 
Interrogative form of verbs, 110. 
Interrogative pronouns, 81. 
Irony, 212. 

Irregular verbs, 85, 111. 
It, 138. 
Italics, 28. 

Lay and lie, 160. 
Learn, used for teach, 160. 
Lesser, 147. 
Letters, 25. 
Like, 178. 

Logical subject, predicate, etc., 
185. 

Metaphor, 211. 

Methinks, 116. 

Metonymy, 212. 

Mine, thine, etc., 75, 78. 

Models of oral instruction, 13- 
18, 23. 

Models of parsing, 143, 152, 157, 
179. 

Models of analysis, 189. 

Models of connection of words, 
192. 

Mode, 85. 

Modifications of subject and pred- 
icate, 187, 188. 

Near and nigh, 178. 
JS r eed, 91 ? 104, 



INDEX. 



219 



Negative form of verbs, 110. 
Never used for ever, 169. 
No, used for not, 170. 
Nominatives, 132. 
Nor — nor, for neither — nor, 

173. 
Nouns, 12, 22,52. 
Number, 58, 91. 
Numeral adjectives, 68. 

O'clock, 179. 

One another, 134. 

en vowels. 32. 

Or — or, for either — or, 173. 

G^i instruction, 11 — 24. 

Order of parsing, 131. 

Order of analysis, 1 

Origin ish words, 121. 

Orthography, 25. 

Paragoge, 210. 

Paragraph, 201. 

Parenthesis, 19 9. 

Parsing, 131, 143, 152, 157, 167, 

179, 182. 
Participles, 88, 166. 
Participial mode, 86. 
Participial nouns, 54. 
Participial adjectives, 69. 
Parts of speech, 11, 51. 
Pauses, poetic, 202. 
Period, 198. 
Personal pronouns, 74. 
Personification, 55, 212. 
Person, 57, 91. 
Phrase, 126. 
Pleonasm, 211. 
Plural of proper name and title, 

62. 
Poetic license, 20 7. 



Position of adjectives, 150. 
Position of adverbs, 170. 
Possessives, 64, 134. 
Possessive of nguns ending in the 

sound of 5 or z, 64. 
Potential mode, rejection of, 85. 
Predicate, 184-8. 
Prefixes, 122-4. 
Prepositions, 20, 23, 118, 176. 
Primith r e words, 47. 
Principal parts of verbs, 92. 
Progressive form of verbs, 109. 
Pronouns, 18, 23, 74, 132, 138. 
Pronominal adjectives, 68. 
Proper and common nouns, 53. 
Proper names, pluralized, 62. 
Proper adjectives, 68. 
Prosody, 202. 
Prosthesis, 209. 
Punctuation, 193. 

Quantity, 202. 
Quotation points, 200. 

Relative pronouns, 79, 141,171. 

Relative adverbs, 172. 

Regular verbs, 85. 

Rhyme, 203. 

Rules of Syntax, 126. 

Same case, 162. 
Save, 178. 
Scanning, 204. 
Section, 201. 
Semicolon, 197. 
Sentences, 125. 
Set and sit, 160. 
Shall and will, 93. 
Simile, 211. 
Simple words, 47, 



220 



INDEX. 



Sounds of the letters, 33, 43. 
Spelling, 48. 
Stanza, 204. 
Subject, 184-7. 
Suffixes, 122. 
Syllables, 46-7. 
Synaeresis, 210. 
Syncope, 209. 
Synecdoche, 212. 
Syntax, 125. 

Tenses, 89, 163. 

Than, 173-6. 

Than whom, 175. 

That, 79, 80, 140, 172, 1 75, 

There, 169. 

This and that, 145. 

Thither, 169. 

Thou, 76. 

Tmesis, 210. 

To-day, to-night, etc., 117. 

Triphthongs, 32. 

Triplet, 204. 



Trochaic verse, 204, 206. 

Unipersonal (impersonal) verbs,' 
116. 

Verbs, 15, 22, 82, 153. 
Versification, 203. 
Vision, 213. 
Voice of verbs, 83, 84. 
Vowels, 31, 33,43. 

We, applied to one person, 139. 
What, 80, 81, 141. 



i . 80, 140, 
Whose, pos sive >f ■ 

140. 
With, used as a corn^ 
Words, 46. 
Worth, 119. 

Yes and no, 169. 

You, sometimes singular, 76. 



* 



